The Lion in Persia Pt 2 - Mohumbra

1857 saw the British/Indian army established in the Persian port of Bushire and an expedition north had already defeated a Persian army at Khoosh-Ab. Since the aim was not conquest, but to force the Persians to leave the Afghan city of Herat, the expedition returned, and another punitive raid was launched from Bushire, this time up the Shatt Al Arab waterway to Mohumra, a city of the Ottoman border.

General Outram

At his disposal Lt General Outram had the following...

Her Majesty's 14th Light Dragoons 89
Scinde Horse                                 303
Total                                              392 sabres

Her Majesty's 64th Foot                704
Her Majesty's 78th Highlanders ...  830

23rd Regiment Native Infantry        749
26th Regiment Native Infantry        716
Light Battalion                                920

Bombay Sappers and Miners         109
Madras Sappers and Miners          124

No.2 Light Field battery                 176
3rd Troop Horse Artillery               166
                                                      12 guns

From the British Indian Navy he had the ....

Feroze                   10 gun paddle frigate. The flag ship, under Captain Rennie
Semiramis                8 gun paddle frigate
Comet                     5 gun paddle gun boat
Victoria                   4 gun paddle steamer
(Lady) Falkland      2 gun paddle steamer/ cutter
Assyria                   2 gun river steamer
Planet                      2 gun river steamer
(Busks Navys of the World) 1859

The troops were assembled and  towed in transport ships by the steamers. Tragically, the expedition had been delayed starting by the suicide of two high ranking officers, but the expedition started up the Shatt al Arab on March 19, and 6 days later they were in sight of Mohumra.

Mohuma, from a later engraving

Mohumra was going to be a tough nut to crack, already strongly fortified because of it´s position, and with extra work done recently. In his report Lt. General Outram decribes the fortifications...

"For some months past the Persians had been strengthening their position at Mohumra. Batteries had been erected of great strength, of solid earth, 20 feet thick, 18 feet high, with casemated embrasures, on the northern and southern points of the banks of the Karoon and Shat-ool Arab, where the two rivers join. These, with other earthworks armed with heavy ordnance, commanded the entire passnge of the latter river, and were so skillfullilly and judiciously placed, and so scientifically formed, as to sweep the whole stream, to the extent of the range of the guns, up and down the river, and across the opposite shore; indeed, everything that science could suggest,, and labour accomplish in the time, appeared to have been done by the enemy to effectually prevent any vessel passing up the river above their position: the banks, for many miles, were covered by dense date groves, affording the most perfect cover for riflemen ; and the opposite shore, being neutral territory (Turkish), was not available for the erection of counter batteries." (London Gazette).

To defend the city, the Persians under Prince Khauler Mirza, .....

"The Persian army, ascertained from credible report to amount to 13,000 men of all arms, with 30 guns
Cavalry, Irregulars ...                                 1,500
9 Regiments, Regulars, 700 each               6,300
Arabs and Bukbtiarees and Beloocuees     4,600
Gunners                                                      600
Total                                                        13,000"
Lt. General Outam, London Gazette

British soldiers on campaign in Persia (from Outram and Havelock's Persian Campaign by Capt. G. Hunt 1858)

Outram at first considered a frontal assault by infantry, but the Persain batteries were so well sited that this was courting disaster. So he decided on a more prudent bombardment of the Southern battery, with his naval forces, 4 steamers and 2 war sloops, supported by a mortar battery on an island opposite the Northern battery.

"On the 24th instant, the steamers, with transport ships in tow, moved up the river to within three miles of the Southern Battery, opposite the Arab village of Hurteh; but, as some of the large ships shoaled on the way, and did not reach the rendezvous until after dark, I was obliged to defer the attack for another day.
During the night, a reconnoissance was made in a boat to ascertain the nature of the soil of an island west of, and immediately opposite, the Northern Battery, where I wished to erect a mortar battery; but, as it was found to be deep mud, I determined to place the mortars upon a raft: this was constructed the following day, under the superintendence of Captain Rennie, I.N., and being armed with two 8-inch and two 5-inch mortars, with a party of artillery under Captain Worgan, was towed by the steamer Comet, and moored in position close to the island during the night, unobserved by the enemy, who, from our preparations at the rendezvous, and their confidence as to the impossibility of any vessel being able to pass above their batteries, apparently expected we should land on the southern island (Abadan).
The horses and guns of the artillery, a portion of the cavalry, and the infantry, were transshipped into boats and small steamers during' the day, in readiness for landing the following morning."

One steamer, the SS Hugh Lindsay of the Bengal Marine, had been fitted with carronades which were to be manned by the Madras Engineers and men of the 64th.

"At break of day, on the 26th, the mortars opened their fire upon both the Northern and Southern Batteries. The range of the 5 inch proved top short, but the 8 inch shells were very efficient, bursting immediately over and inside the enemy's works ; whilst, from the position of the raft, but few of the Persian guns could be brought to bear upon the mortars.
At seven o'clock, the several vessels of war moved up into the positions allotted them by Commodore Young, and, by nine o'clock, the fire of the heavy batteries was so reduced that the small steamers, with boats in tow, and one large steamer, the Pottinger, towing the transport Golden Era, were able to pass up and land the troops above the Northern Battery without a single casualty amongst the troops, although they had to run the gauntlet of both gun and musket fire; two or three native followers only were killed, in consequence of their unnecessarily exposing themselves.
By half-past one o'clock the troops were landed and formed, and advanced without delay through the date groves and across the plain, upon the entrenched camp of the enemy, who, without waiting for our approach, fled precipitately, after exploding their largest magazine, leaving, as I have before stated, their tents and baggage, public and private stores, with several magazines of ammunition and seventeen guns, behind. The want of cavalry prevented my pursuing them asI could have wished; but I despatched a party of Scinde Irregular Horse, under Captain Malcolm Green, to follow them up for some distance. This officer reported that he came upon their rear guard, retiring in good order, but that the road in many places was strewed with property and equipmonts. The loss of the Persians has been estimated at 200 killed, among whom was an officer of rank and estimation, Brigadier Agha Jan Khan, who fell in the Northern Battery."

The northern battery after the bombardment

The Persian garrison under Khanlar Mirza withdrew "in a very disorganized state" 100 miles north to the city of Ahvaz, leaving the British to enter Mohumra on March 29th, and promptly set about destroying the Persian batteries.General Outram organised a task force to proceed up to Ahwaz.

The Lion in Persia Part 1 - Reshire, and the charge of the 3rd Bombays

Herat, and the scandalous wife of Meerza Hashem Khan

The Anglo-Persian War of 1856/7 was actually more of a punitive expedition, and came out of the Great Game - the struggle for Asia between the British and Russian Empires. Persia had coveted the Afghan city of Herat for decades, but had been warned off by Britain, who was keen to keep Afghanistan intact as a buffer protecting India from the Russians. Now, egged on from St Petersburg, Persia had taken the city of 25th Oct 1856.

There was a further casas belli, over the affair of Meerza Hashem Khan. He had been in the Shah´s court for many years, starting as a page in the harem, and he was married the sister of one of the Shah´s wives. Therefore this lady, whose name or picture sadly I cannot find, was a member of the Royal Family. Now, rumours started spreading that she and the British ambassador, Charles Murray, has more than "diplomatic" relations - rumours which Murray did nothing to squash when he hired a house near his residence for the wife. As the clamour increased Murray claimed that in fact he was going hire Meerza Hashem Khan as a secretary, and send him to the city of Fars. Strangely enough this didn´t help, the outraged brother of the lady took her and delivered her to the Perisan authorities, and Meerza bolted to the British mission, where he was given sanctuary. Murray demanded the wife's return, the Persians demanded Meerza, and harsh words were spoken until diplomatic relations were broken off.

Persia had possibly calculated that the British had been so weakened by the Crimean War, just finished, and so fearful of moving troops from India where tensions were rising, that they would not respond to the seizure of a city not even in British territory. They were wrong, Britain declared war.

Persian troops (Illustrated London News)

The Invasion

Relieving Herat directly would have involved marching through Afghanistan, traditionally a bad idea, so an expedition was prepared to land on Persia's southern coast.

The First division, under Major General Foster consisted of 2,300 British regulars and 3,400 Indian sepoys of the Bombay Presidency, setting sail from Bombay in November 1856. They picked off the Gulf island of Kharag on then way, before landing near Bushire, Persia's main southern port. Foster's force at this point included...

64th (2nd Staffordhire) Regiment
4th Bombay Infantry
20th Bombay Infantry
26th Bombay Infantry
2nd European light infantry
2nd Baluch Battalion
3rd Bombay Light Cavalry
Bombay Sappers & Miners
4th troop Horse Artillary
3rd and 5th Light Field batteries

Bushire was protected by an old Dutch fort at Reshire,  Commander Felix Jones, the Politial Offier, reported as follows....

"This was on the morning of the 9th, and, by noon, the enemy were observed to be in some force in the village of Reshire. Here, amid the ruins of old houses, garden-walls, and steep ravines, they occupied a formidable position. But, notwithstanding their firmness, wall after wall was surmounted, and finally they were driven from bordering on the cliffs at the margin of the sea. This was carried at the point of the bayonet, the enemy then only flying in despair down the cliffs, wheremany met their death in their endeavours to escape through the ravines of the south. The nature of the ground, however, rendered pursuit difficult to the Horse, though many were cut up in a chase of some distance. Details of this spirited affair will be given by the proper officers. I shall, therefore, merely observe, that the enemy received at first a lesson he will not readily forget, for the tribe families of Dashti and Tungestoon comprising its ranks are regarded as the most brave, as well as the most skilled, in the defence of posts like Reshire, where regular troops cannot work with full effect. Brigadier Stopford, C.B., met his death here, and other loss was experienced. The wounded were received into the ships the same evening, and provisions were thrown into the camp from seaward during the night."



 The Battle of Reshire, from the Illustrated London News

By all accounts it was a hard fight, officer casualties being recorded as Brigadier Stopford, and Lieutenant-Colonel Malet, of the 3rd Light Cavalry, and Lieutenants Utterson and Warren, of the 20th Bombay Regiment. One consequence of the assault was the awarding of the very first Victoria Cross to a member of a British Indian Army, 38 year old Captain John Wood of the Grenadier company of the 20th Bombay Native Infantry.

His citation in the London Gazette reads as follows;

"On the 9th of December, 1856, Captain Wood led the Grenadier Company, which formed the head of the assaulting column sent against Bushire. He was the first man on the parapet of the fort, where he was instantly attacked by a large number of the garrison, who suddenly sprang on him from a trench cut in the parapet itself. : These men fired a volley at Captain Wood and the head of the storming party, when only a yard or two distant from that Officer; but, although Captain Wood was struck by no less than seven musket balls, he at once threw himself upon the enemy, passed his sword through the body of their leader, and, being
closely followed by the men of his company, speedily overcame all opposition, and established himself in the place. Captain Wood's decision, energy, and determined valour, undoubtedly contributed in a high degree to the success of the attack. His wounds compelled him to leave the force for a time; but, with the true spirit of a good soldier, he rejoined his regiment, and returned to his duty at Bushire before the wounds were properly healed."

Subedar Major Mohammed Sharief and Subedar Peer Bhatt of the same regiment were also recommended for awards for bravery.

The British/ Indian force entered Bushire on 10th December after a 5 hour naval bombarment by the steam gun sloops "Victoria,"  " Falkland, " Semiramis," and " Feroze," had silenced the guns of the city. The surrender was taken from Mehdy Khan. Sirhang, (commander) of  the Nihawed regiment, and the garrison of Bushire, who had taken charge on the death of the previous garrison commander, Sirteep, of the Azerbijan Regiment.

It was clear by now though that troops would be needed and a 2nd dvision left from Bombay, headed by General Sir James Outram, who would take charge of the whole expedition. The troops he bought included the...

Poona Irregular Horse
1st Scinde Irregular Horse
Madras Sappers & Miners

Outram marched on the city of Shiraz, taking the city of Bazjun, which was abandoned without a fight, and on February 5th they stopped near the village of Khoosh-Ab to stock up on water. All this time the Persians had been retiring in front of them, and although Outram tried to catch up on 6th and 7th Feb it was clear that he might as well retire back to Khoosh-Ab, and then Bashire. However, seeing the British depart the Persian commander in chief, Shooja-ool-Moolk, suddenly grew bolder.A night attack was lauched on the rear guard by calvalry, and an attempt to catch the British as they retired. At daybreak 7,000 men the Persian army occupied a position overlooking the British route, so Outram gathered his forces, about 4,500 men and he attacked.

The battle of Khoosh-Ab

In his official report Lieutenant-General Sir James Outram estimates the Persian forces as .....

Guards, 900
2 Karragoozloo Regiments. 1,500
Shiraz Regiment, 200
4 Regiments of Sabriz, 800
Arab Regiment, 900
Kashkai Regiment, 800 - 1.100
Sufenghees, 1,000.
Cavalry of Shiraz, 300
Eilkhanee Horse, 500- 800.
Guns (said to be), 18

His description of the battle is as follows;

"Our artillery and cavalry at once moved rapidly to the attack, supported by two lines of infantry, a third protecting the baggage. The firing of the artillery was most excellent, and did great execution ; the cavalry brigade twice charged with great gallantry and success; a standard (of the Kashkai Regular Infantry Regiment) was captured by the Poona horse; and the 3rd Light Cavalry charged a square, and killed nearly the whole regiment; indeed, upon the cavalry and artillery fell the whole brunt of the action, as the enemy moved away too rapidly for the infantry to overtake them. By ten o'clock the defeat of the Persians was complete ; two guns were captured; the gun ammunition, laden upon mules, fell into our hands; and at least 700 men lay dead upon the field. The number of wounded could not be ascertained, but it must have been very large.
The remainder fled in a disorganised state, generally throwing away their arras, which strewed the field in vast numbers, and nothing but the paucity of our cavalry prevented their total destruction and the capture of the remaining guns".


The charge at the Battle of Khoosh-Ab

The most famous incident was the battle was the charge of the 3rd Bombay Light Horse against a regiment arranged in square to repel cavalry - by the recieved wisdom of the time, such a charge was impossible. Somehow the 3rd managed it, breaking the square and destroying it, so that only 20 of the 500 escaped. Two lieutenants, Arthur Thomas Moore, who first broke into the square, and John Grant Malcolmson, were awarded Victoria Crosses for their part in the action, as described in the London Gazette..

"On the occasion of an attack on the enemy on the 8th of February, 1837, led by Lieutenant- Colonel Forbes, C.B., Lieutenant Moore, the Adjutant of the Regiment, was, perhaps, the first of all by a horse's length. His horse leaped into the square, and instantly fell dead, crushing down his rider, and breaking his sword as he fell amid the broken ranks of the enemy. Lieutenant Moore speedily extricated himself, and attempted with his broken sword to force his way through the press, but he would assuredly have lost his life, had not the gallant young Lieutenant Malcolmson, observing his peril, fought his way to his dismounted comrade through a crowd of enemies to his rescue, and, giving him his stirrup, safely carried him through everything out of the throng.
The thoughtfulness for others, cool determination, devoted courage, and ready activity shown in extreme danger by this young Officer, Lieutenant Malcolmson, appear to. have been most admirable, and to be worthy of the highest honour."

The British continued back to Bushire.

John Brunt VC

Given the British military tradition, and love of beer, it is rather surprising that there is only one pub in the British Isles named after the winner of a Victoria cross, the John Brunt VC in Paddock Wood, Kent.

John Brunt was born in Shropshire in 1922, and in 1934 his family moved to Paddock Wood. The main pub in the town was the Kent Arms and apparently the teenage Brunt was ofter there, so it was apt that this was the pub destined to bear his name.

John helped with the Paddock Wood Home Guard untl he was old enough to enlist as a private in 1941. By January 1943 he was commissioned, and posted to North Africa with the 6th Battalion, Royal Lincolnshire Regiment. On 9 September 1943, the Lincolns landed at Salerno in Italy and Lieutenant Brunt was given command of No.9 Platoon in A Company. For most of December and January Brunt platoon were in action, including on December 15th an assault across the river Asa that earned Brunt the Military Cross.

After R&R in the Middle East Brunt was back in Italy in July, promoted to temporary Captain, and 2nd in command of D company. The Royal Lincolnshires were part of the forces driving the German army back through Italy, and it was a hard slog, with each town being fiercely defended. By December 9th their divsion had stormed the town of Faenza near Ravenna, and established defensive positions expecting a counter attack. It was here that John Brunt won his Victoria Cross.

Ruins in Faenza

The full citation appeared in a supplement to the London Gazette of 6 February 1945:

   " War Office, 8th February, 1945

The KING has been graciously pleased to approve the posthumous award of the VICTORIA CROSS to:—

Lieutenant (temporary Captain) John Henry Cound Brunt, M.C. (258297), The Sherwood Foresters (Nottinghamshire and Derbyshire Regiment) (Paddock Wood, Kent).

In Italy, on the 9th December, 1944, the Platoon commanded by Captain Brunt was holding a vital sector of the line.

At dawn the German 90 Panzer Grenadier Division counter-attacked the Battalion's forward positions in great strength with three Mark IV tanks and infantry. The house, around which the Platoon was dug in, was destroyed and the whole area was subjected to intense mortar fire. The situation then became critical, as the anti-tank defences had been destroyed and two Sherman tanks knocked out. Captain Brunt, however, rallied his remaining men, and, moving to an alternative position, continued to hold the enemy infantry, although outnumbered by at least three to one. Personally firing a Bren gun, Captain Brunt killed about fourteen of the enemy. His wireless set was destroyed by shell-fire, but on receiving a message by runner to withdraw to a Company locality some 200 yards to his left and rear, he remained behind to give covering fire. When his Bren ammunition was exhausted, he fired a Piat and 2 in. Mortar, left by casualties, before he himself dashed over the open ground to the new position. This aggressive defence caused the enemy to pause, so Captain Brunt took a party back to his previous position, and although fiercely engaged by small arms fire, carried away the wounded who had been left there.

Later in the day, a further counter-attack was put in by the enemy on two axes. Captain Brunt immediately seized a spare Bren gun and, going round his forward positions, rallied his men. Then, leaping on a Sherman tank supporting the Company, he ordered the tank commander to drive from one fire position to another, whilst he sat, or stood, on the turret, directing Besa fire at the advancing enemy, regardless of the hail of small arms fire. Then, seeing small parties of the enemy, armed with bazookas, trying to approach round the left flank, he jumped off the tank and, taking a Bren gun, stalked these parties well in front of the Company positions, killing more and causing the enemy finally to withdraw in great haste leaving their dead behind them.

Wherever the fighting was heaviest, Captain Brunt was always to be found, moving from one post to another, encouraging the men and firing any weapon he found at any target he could see. The magnificent action fought by this Officer, his coolness, bravery, devotion to duty and complete disregard of his own personal safety under the most intense and concentrated fire was beyond praise. His personal example and individual action were responsible to a very great extent for the successful repulse of these fierce enemy counter-attacks."
   
Tragically, having survived so many desperate actions, Brunt was killed by a fluke the next day. He and his men were having their first proper meal for 48 hours and Brunt was standing in a doorway holding a cup of tea when a mortar round landed right at his feet - he was killed outright.

In 1947, the Kent Arms was renamed the John Brunt VC in his honour.

Uruguay 1776

According to Hollywood, the late 1770s were all about a collection of farmers and militia rebelling against the might of the British Empire, but of course there was a lot more going on in the world. North America was only one front in a truly global war that saw Britain assailed on all sides by the French, Dutch and Spanish eager to carve up British territories. There were victories and losses, especially in North America, although Canada was held against overwhelming odds. And it didn't escape notice that Britain's ally Portugal was left without the support of her powerful partner.

Uruguay is maybe the Belgium of South America, having the great misfortune to lie on a geopolitical fault line, in this case between the Spanish and Portuguese Empires, or later their heirs, Argentina and Brazil. The small city of Colonia de Sacramento for example changed hands 12 times between 1680 and 1828, and even then was later conquered by Guissepe Garibaldi during the Uruguayan civil war. However, we are looking here at the events of 1776-7, whilst the British and Americans were fighting at Brooklyn Heights and Quebec.

The entrance to old Colonia de Sacramento

An earlier war (in 1763-5) had gone well for the Spanish, capturing Rio Grande (the present day Brazilian city), the fortress of Santa Tereza and several other key locations. Ever since the Portuguese had plotted their revenge. They assembled 6,000 men (against 1,450 Spanish in the area) and in February 1776 two Portuguese fleets arrived at the Spanish fortress of Rio Grande de São Pedro and opened fire. The Portuguese commanders were Robert MacDouall and Jorge Hardcastle, just two of many British, or British descended, officers in the Portuguese Navy. A Spanish fleet attempted to intervene but after an inconclusive naval battle withdrew, and the Portuguese invaders pressed on inland, forcing the Spanish out of the area. After 27 days of siege a force of 4 companies of grenadiers defeated a Spanish force of 8 companies at nearby Lagoa dos Patos (Duck Lake), also burring Spanish ships that could not escape against a strong head wind. Following this the fort surrendered.

Not Rio Grande de São Pedro, but Fort Santa Teresa, which is still standing open to visitors

Despite this apparent victory, the Portuguese had miscalculated badly. With Britain bogged down around the world Spain had little to fear, and the response was designed to be overwhelming. 9,000 men were assembled in Spain, with 6 front line warships, 8 frigates and about100 transports. As important, for once the Spanish put a capable commander in charge, Pedro Antonio de Cevallos, the Viceroy of the Río de la Plata (Argentina). He had local knowledge after winning several battles in the 1760s.

Pedro Antonio de Cevallos

The Spanish fleet arrived in South America in Feb 1777. They found MacDouall, but his much smaller fleet managed to escape, so they sailed for the island of Santa Catarina (site of the modern Brazilian city of Floionopolis). When the garrison saw the huge Spanish fleet they fled without firing a shot, so Cevallos sailed for his 2nd objective, recapturing Rio Grande de São Pedro. Here the Portuguese had a piece of luck, a storm so damaging the Spanish fleet that they had to go to Montevideo for repairs. Cevallos split his forces, personally taking all the artillery and 4,500 men by ship to Colonia del Sacramento to which he lay siege. Despite heavy rain they set up a mortar battery, an eight pounder battery firing heated shot and various other cannon. The Portuguese garrison of 1,000 men were already in dire straits after a Spanish blockade, and with little hope of relief they soon surrendered. Cevellos demolished the walls to prevent reoccupation, and sunk blockships in the harbour.

Meanwhile, the rest of his fleet, the heavier warships, he sent hunting for MacDouall´s squadron. MacDouall was too wily however, and even succeeded in picking off one of a reinforcing squadron just arrived from Spain, the San Agustin. This he added to his fleet under yet another Englishman, Arthur Philip.

Cevellos now sailed back to Rio Grande de São Pedro, joining forces with the Spanish garrison of Santa Tereza. But before he could capture it, he received word that peace had been declared.

Aftermath

In February 1777 the worsening military situation, and the accession of a new Spanish born queen (Maria 1), led to the Portuguese seeking peace, and signing the First Treaty of San Ildefonso. Spain returned the island of Santa Catarina to Portugal, and recognised Rio Grande de São Pedro as Portuguese territory, but kept Colonia del Sacramento, the Banda Oriental, and the Misiones Orientales. Except for the Misiones Orientales, a region near Paraguay, this more less remains the Brazilian/ Uruguayan border today.
Portugal had been disappointed by lack of British support, and so remained neutral when Spain and Britain declared war, leaving Spain free to concentrate on Florida, the Mediterranean and besieging Gibraltar, draining yet more British troops from North America.

Spanish Forces

Flag of the Regiment of Guadalajara

Naval

The Spanish invasion fleet consisted of the following....
(Poderoso, 70 guns, Santiago la América, 64, San Dámaso, 70, Septentrión, 70, Monarca, 70, and San José, 70), 9 frigates,Santa Ana, Santa Clara, Venus, Santa Floritina, Santa Tereza, Santa Margarita, Santa Rosa, Liebre,

The unfortunate San Agustin (74) was dispatched later intending to join the main fleet.

Army

Cevallhos's expedition from Spain included 8,600 infantry, 640 dragoons and 150 gunners, organised in four brigades.

A captain in the Lusitania dragoons 1776

The regiments were as follows;

Dragones de Lusitania
Regimiento de Toledo.1 batt
Regimiento de Murcia.1 batt
Regimiento de Hibernia.1 batt. Formed mainly of Irish mercenaries, the "Wild Geese". Cevallos left William Vaughn of the Hibernia Regiment in command of the garrison in Santa Catarina.
Regimiento de la Princesa.1 batt
Regimiento de Cordoba.2 batt
Regimiento de Galicia.
Regimiento de Zamora.2 batt
Regimiento de Guadalajara.1 batt, who later formed part of the garrison of Santa Teresa.
Regimiento de Saboya.1 batt
Regimiento de Sevilla, 2 batt

Voluntarios de Cataluna.1 batt
Companies of grenadiers

Portuguese Forces

The Portuguese forces were under the overall command of Lt. Gen. Joao Henrique Böhm, a Prussian mercenary. It is much harder to get information of them than the Spanish, in part possibly because the Portuguese relied much more on local, less well documented, militia. This print is from the museum at Fort Santa Teresa, showing "Portuguese colonial troops of the 18th century".

Macdouall's fleet consisted of four ships of the line, including the Sao Antonio, 62, and four frigates, including the Nossa Senhora do Pilar. under Arthur Philip
Hardcastles little fleet had only 2 corvettes 2 brigs and 2 zumacas.

Further reading

Wars of the Americas by David Manley
Guerras entre España y Portugal en la cuenca del Río de la Plata.By Santiago Gómez.

http://www.todoababor.es/articulos/esp-port.htm

The fort at Santa Tereza in Uruguay is open to the public. It is very well preserved and has an excellent museum, well worth a visit.

Last Stand at Bembridge

By 1860 French adventurism was causing concern all over Europe, if not the world. This also applied to England, especially when France started building new and advanced war ships, that could only have one conceivable opponent. The British Prime Minister, Lord Palmerston, called a committee , the Royal Commission on the Defence of the United Kingdon to investigate Britain's Home defence, and the results were not good. Even with the new Volunteer units, if an invasion could get past the Royal Navy, it stood a very good chance to succeeding. The British response took the form of a fortification building program.

There were 3 main priorities.
a) Protect London - if this fell, England fell with it
b) Protect the main Naval bases - any invasion would need constant supplies, keep the fleet in being and the invaders could be starved of supplies.
c) The Isle of Wight. This is not so obvious, but was a historical worry. Ever since the days of the Spanish armada there had been the fear that a hostile power would not invade the homeland, but seize the Isle of Wight as both a bargaining chip, and to disrupt the Royal Navy base at Portsmouth. Virtually defenceless, the IOW would require a much less imposing force to conquer, and was a much more plausible proposition.

Between 1855 and 1870 12 separate defences were built around the island. If these could be overcome, the last defence on the east side of the island, the final citadel, was designed to be the Fort at Bembridge.


Fort Bembridge was constructed on the high ground between the town of Sandown and the village of Bembridge, on Culver Down, at 320 ft above sea level the highest point on this side of the island. It was built between 1862 and 1867, at a cost of nearly £50,000.

Bembridge Fort from above. A brick built hexagonal structure set into the chalk hillside with a cannon at each corner, and parapets all round. The exit is across a drawbridge to the road on the bottom of the picture.

Bembridge Fort had 3 main functions.

a) It was the barracks for two nearby batteries covering the coast.

i) Redcliff - three 7" rifled breech loading (RBL) guns covering Sandown Bay and one facing towards Culver cliff, 100ft up a cliff and defended on the land side by a deep ditch.

ii) Yaverland - 8x 7" RBL guns facing to sea. 100ft up but the cliff was climbable and so had infantry defences and a ditch on both seaward and landward sides. Note the reason for so many 7" RBL guns was that the navy didn't want them! Their performance had been less than satisfactory at sea and a rearmament program was taking place.

b) To secure the high ground behind the Sandown Bay beach defences.

c) If the defences at Sandown Bay were stormed, or successful landings were made elsewhere on the island, Fort Bembridge was to hold out against the invader.

Bembridge had a peacetime complement of 1 officer, 5 NCOs and 78 men. Water was pumped from a well at Yaverland and stored in a 22,000 gallon tank, making the fort self sufficient in water at least.

Men of the Royal Artillery (New York Public Library)

In 1871 the fort was manned by the 103rd regiment of the Royal Artillery, and from 1872-1874 the 7th Brigade.

Attacking Fort Bembridge

So if Napoleon III had successfully landed troops on the Isle of Wight, what would his blue coated infantry have encountered as they prepared to storm Fort Bembridge?

The view up the hill towards the fort, the small mound at the top

Cliffs on the seaward side and it's position on the highest point on this side of the island meant any attack would be up hill. Also being dug deep into the chalk, and the use of bomb proof shelters gave as much protection from artillery as possible. Each corner of the hexagon had a 7" RBL cannon and the fort was well supplied with over 2,000 rounds, and 1,200 shells, whilst all the time attackers would be under fire from infantry manning the parapets.


Any enemy reaching the walls would have to cross a deep dry moat. the single entrance crossed only via a draw bridge. If they entered the moat they would be in a crossfire from the caponiers, brick built covered walkways crossing the ditch. If the French could scale the inner wall and take the central parade ground then, well, all was probably lost.

Thankfully, Prussia put paid to Napoleon and his plans, (although causing other worries!) and the fort was never needed.

Aurora in the ice

This is HMS Aurora in the winter of 1866-7. She is not trapped in the Antarctic, she is in Winter Quarters just outside Quebec city, Canada. Her upper spars and rigging have been removed, and she has been wrapped up as protection against the wind. A temporary suspension bridge formed from the ships cables links her mooring at Commissioners Wharf to the shore.
But why was she there at all?

Protecting Canada

To deter raids from Fenian gangs into Canada the Royal Navy had deployed various units along the St Lawrence river during 1866 and 7 and the Aurora had been there since May 1866. Originally built in 1861, she was quite a new ship with 51 guns and screw powered, so she could navigate the local waters well. But in this period her main role was as a source of experienced naval crew, of which she carried 540.

Her crew were used to man gun boats patrolling the St Lawrence river,. These gunboats were mainly converted local craft such as the Rescue (under Lt Fairlie), Prince Alfred, and Michigan, purchased by the Canadian authorities and protected by boiler plates and heavy planking, armed with Armstrong ship guns and 9 and 12 pounders.
120 men were also sent by train down to Toronto in June 1866 to man the steamer Magnet and the gunboat Heron, for service on lake Ontario.

The Rescue

These "provincial gunboats" had originally been manned by the volunteer Toronto Naval Reserve, though even then the Aurora had made a contribution, a Toronto born midshipman home on leave, EB Van Koughnet, able to act as adviser to the commander, Captain McMaster.

The harsh Canadian winters meant that most waterways froze up, so the gunboats were laid up from November 1866 to March 67, and her crew returned to the Aurora.

In March 1867 her crew again manned gunboats, patrolling from Quebec up to Lake Ontario.
Prince Alfred - Lt. Archibald Douglas with 3 officers, 1 surgeon, 2 engineers and 64 men
Rescue - Lt Henry Fairlie with 2 officers, 2 engineers and 48 men.
Hercules, commanded by Lt Thomas Hooper with 2 officers, 2 engineers and 50 men.

The Prince Alfred

Quebec

Life on board the Aurora during the winter was hard. In Quebec temperatures can drop down to -30 during the winter, it is extremely cold! A constant battle had to waged to break up ice around the ship, cutting it into blocks to prevent it damaging the ship.

During the summer though, life for her crew had been rather more pleasant, at least for the skeleton crew not manning gun boats. According to the Illustrated London News
"The officers and men of the Aurora have, by their courtesy and efficient services they have rendered during their stay, become great favourites with the citizens.... The fine band has likewise lent it's aid at concerts for charitable purposes, as well as at citizen's balls."
This popularity was cemented during the Great Fire in the St Roch district in October, when over 2300 houses were destroyed. The
"officers and men vied with each other in their endeavours to save life and property".

Quebec City after the fire

In July the following year there was a minor diplomatic incident when the US ship Haze refused to salute the Aurora, as was normal courtesy.

The Aurora stayed on station until November 1867 when she returned to Plymouth.

The Mid Victorian Portuguese Navy

The Ships

In 1859 Husk's "The Navies of the World: their present state and future capabilities" lists the Portuguese Navy as follows...

1x Ship of the line 80 guns
The Vasco de Gama, built about 1841 in Lisbon. Although modern she was neither armoured or with steam propulsion, and so was rapidly becoming obsolete.
1x Frigate 50 guns
The Don Fernando II, built 1845, and actually still afloat and available to visit at Cacilhas near Lisbon*
3x Corvettes of 18 guns
2x Brigs of 18 guns
3x Brigs of 16 guns
1x Brig 14 guns
11x Schooners of 4-5 guns each
9x Transports
6x Steamers
including the Bartolomeu Dias, built in England in 1858, with 3 masts, but also steam propulsion

The frigate Don Fernando

"The Portuguese Navy contains 37 vessels large and mounting 362 guns and employing 2118 men. Of above 27 sailing vessels and 5 steamers are in commission the other 5 in ordinary "

It has to be said that for an imperial power with stations from Madeira to southern Africa to Goa and the East Indies, this was not terribly impressive. Even Sardinia, for example, had more steamers.

By 1863 the New York Social Science Review reports a fleet of;

1x ship of the line 76
1x frigate 44
3x corvettes
1x brig
6x schooners and cutters
11x transports
6x steam corvettes and 7x steamers

The steamer Bartolomeu Dias in 1859

At least there were now 12 steamers, but it was still a small fleet. The principle naval bases were at Lisbon and Oporto, but naval officers were often also colonial governors, for instance the Governor of Macao in 1859 was a captain in the Portuguese navy, as was the Governor General in Luanda (Angola) in 1866

Of course, as Britain's oldest ally, Portugal to a large extent was sheltering under the Pax Brittanica, any move against Goa, for example, would be inconceivable without the consent of British India. whilst Madeira would not be allowed to fall into the hands of any "major" power. But this is not to say that there were not issues.

Africa

Time and time again the Portuguese authorities in Angola and Mozambique were criticised in the House of Commons for "allowing" slave ships to take their cargo to Brazil. Royal Naval ships in Sierra Leone and later Simonstown intercepted many slave ships under the Portuguese flag, and although slave trading had been offically abolished in the Portuguese empire in 1836, over 20,000 slaves per year were exported from Angola alone during the later 1830s, mainly to Brazil. A clear distinction was also made, in Portuguese eyes at least, between slave trading and and slave ownership, which contiuned to be legal. A census in 1854 fround 60,000 slaves in Angola and 40,000 in Mozambique.

A report to the Earl of Aberdeen by the British consul in Luanda in 1845 compared 43 ships captured by the Royal Navy with 9 captured by the Portuguese and recommended strongly against leaving stretches of the coast solely to Portuguese patrols.
" in the first place because the number and efficiency of the Portuguese squadron are utterly inadequate to guard this extensive line of coast effectively many of their cruizers being employed on distant colonial service to the southward and also because the subordinate officers of the Portuguese navy to whose care this duty would necessarily be confided having with the feelings of most of their countrymen long been accustomed to regard the Slave Trade merely as a contraband traffic"
"The officers of the Portuguese naval service derive no pecuniary benefit whatever from the capture of slave vessels and consequently in this respect there is no inducement to zeal"

However, the Governor of Luanda at the time, Captain Pedro Alexandrine da Cunha, is praised for his " just and honourable principles far superior to those of the generality of his predecessors who have notoriously amassed fortunes by receiving douceurs from slave dealers".

By 1850 things seem to have improved, with, for instance, reports of the brig Corimba capturing 7 slave boats on the west African coast. The Goverenor of Angola, Jose de Coehlo de Amaral, also moved to close a loophole in the system. For years the ban on trading had been bypassed by using the independent native city of Ambriz, just up the coast from Luanda. In 1855, de Amaral sent a naval expedition to occupy the town and the traffic was stopped, and a trading city added to Portuguese territory of course. The late 1850s and 1860s saw new more dynamic governments in Lisbon developing plans to develop their African colonies, to form a "new Brazil in Africa" and the navy was reorganised around this, with more units based in Mozambique and Angola. The flagship Vasco da Gama was used to ferry extra troops down to Angola in 1859.

The flagship Vasco da Gama on a Mozambiquan stamp

The Americas

In 1849 the Vasco da Gama sailed for Brazil to show the flag, but rather embarrassingly lost all her masts in a storm and had to be towed to Rio de Janeiro.

In 1864 a Portuguese squadron including the Bartolomeu Dias was sent to Brazil to monitor Portuguese interests during the Paraguay war.

In 1865 Portugal entered briefly into the American civil war. The Confederate ironclad ram Stonewall entered Lisbon, as a neutral port, closely followed by the USS Niagara and Sacramento. The Stonewall was ordered to leave, but under international law, the US ships had to wait 24 hours before pursuing. Believing that they were about to break this law, and thus Portuguese neutrality, the guns of the ancient Tower of Belem opening fire, though causing no damage. The US ships retired, and covered also by the corvettes Sagres and Mindello, they waited with steam up until the deadline had passed. Portugal later offically apologised for the incident.

The Belem tower firing on the Niagara & Sacramento (on left)

Asia

The Portuguese had had a settlement at Macao on the Chinese coast since 1557, expanding the territory by taking over Taipa and Colerane in 1851 and 1864 respectively. One consequence of this was development of the "lorcha", a hybrid class of boat combining "junk" type sails with a "European" style hull. This type was both faster than traditional junks and simpler to build and sail than European types, and became very popular in the area.

Macau in 1859

In 1854, 4 Portuguese lorchas were part of a task force headed by USS Porpoise which attacked a pirate base near Macao, the US commander Lt Henry Rolando reporting that
"Captain Cavalho of the Portuguese navy reported that two of the junks were driven on shore and that he succeeded in making two prizes which were afterwards lost by the bad weather coming on rendering it necessary to cut them adrift from the vessel to which they were in tow".

Elsewhere in 1854 there was a showdown between a Portuguese corvette, the Don Joao, and a Chinese naval force at the city of Ningpo. Following tension between the Portuguese and Chinese in the city, which had resulted in deaths on both sides, the Portuguese sent the corvette to the city and a series of demands to the authorities there, basically requiring that the Chinese perpetrators be punished and steps be taken to ensure that local pirates did not interfere with Portuguese vessels in the future. Talks stalled and the Don Joao " took up a position opposite the east gate of the city. The Cantonese have become greatly excited. They have beached their junks in a line opposite the corvette and have taken possession of the city gate just mentioned and having mounted several guns upon the walls seem determined to make a bold resistance" (report of the US Consul in Ningpo, DB McCarter, who was firmly on the side of the Chinese in the matter).

Ning-Po in 1850

On July 10 the Don Joao, and a small fleet of 15 lorchas opened fire, sinking or capturing the junks and seizing all guns. The stand off continued until September, when a deal was reached, no Chinese were handed over but money was paid in lieu. It certainly did not end piracy in the area, McCarter reporting that
"there are fourteen Cantonese junks now lying at anchor off the city several of which are expected to leave in a few days for Chin kiangfu. A large fleet of pirates is outside mostly in the port and vicinity of Shih pu but some of them have visited the harbor of Chusan within three weeks compelling some sugar junks at anchor in the harbor to pay a heavy ransom and demanding supplies of rice &c from the city of Tinghai They are said to be about to start for the neighborhood of Shantung to intercept the trading junks engaged in the northern trade"

In 1859 there were again clashes between Portuguese and Chinese troops at Macao, and tensions continued for much of this period.

Further reading

The Navies of the World 1859
http://books.google.ca/books?id=8Xw5AAAAcAAJ&printsec=frontcover#v=onepage&q&f=false

British and Foreign state papers
http://books.google.ca/books?id=LdwMAQAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover#v=onepage&q&f=false

US Congressional papers
http://books.google.ca/books?id=qWhHAQAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover#v=onepage&q&f=false

Visits

The frigate Don Fernando at Cacilhas near Lisbon
http://www.revistademarinha.com/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=1444:dfernando-e-gloria&catid=108:historia-maritima&Itemid=295