Yucatan & the (British) Empire

The US-Mexican war of 1846-8 and the Franco-Austrian involvement in Mexico in Maximilian's Adventure (1863-67) are fairly well known, but less so is the involvement of the British Empire in Mexican history. Or more specifically, Mexico´s involvement in the Empire.

It all started in the 1840s when General Santa Anna (he that lost the US-Mexican War) invaded the quasi independent Yucatan region to restore Mexican control. The "Napoleon of the West" was no more successful there than against the Americans, but he managed to start a civil war there that continued off and on until 1901. The population of the Yucatan could be grouped into three main classes, the pure bred Spanish in the top jobs, the Mayan Indians, and the Mestizos of mixed Spanish Indian blood in the middle.

 Northern British Honduras and the Yucatan, after A.B. Ellis

As the war became increasing bloody many Mestizos fled across the border to British Honduras (modern Belize) to escape Mayan attacks. Between 1848 and 1856 more than 10,000 crossed the Rio Hondo, the river that now served as the border, and sought refuge in northern Belize. Many settled in the Corozal District where the local magistrate, James Blake, let them develop sugar plantations, others in the Orange Walk District. Before this the interior of British Honduras was sparsely populated, most of the people there in the Mahogany industry, with timber floated down the New River into Corozal Bay, then to Belize City and shipped abroad. The logging industry was in decline however, so the opening up of the interior to sugar plantations came at an opportune time for the British.

The problem was that Belize's rather meagre defences faced the sea, against the French, Spanish or Americans. The interior was poorly defended, there had never been much of a point. But as the "War of the Castes" spread across the border, this was about to change.

The Icaiche

Just across the border from Corozal and Orange Walk were the Icaiche or Chichenha Maya  , it was they who had driven the Mestizos across the border. The Maya to the north, the Chan Santa Cruz Maya or Cruzob, were "de facto" recognised as a separate nation by the British, and there was considerable trade between them, but the Icaiche under Marcos Canul were a different story. Canul raided the Mexicans, the Cruzobs, and increasingly, against the British. The position of the Imperial Mexican Government was somewhat equivocal about this. In general the Yucatan was one of the more loyal parts of the Franco-Mexican empire, and there was even a back up plan to withdraw to the Yucatan if Mexico proved too hot and start again, annexing the small countries of Central America. An edict was issued claiming Belize for the Imperial crown. In this respect, if Canul drove British settlers out of the area he was worth tolerating, and the French army were probably not too upset to see the British Empire humiliated.

In May 1866 Canul attacked Qualm Hill, killing two people and kidnapping 79 more, who were only returned after a ransom of $3,000 was paid. A small detachment of 140 men of the 4th West Indian Regiment under Major MacKay caught up with him in December but it did not go well, as desecribed in Colburn's United Service Magazine and Naval and Military Journal (Volume 36).

"They proceeded in a fleet of canoes up the tortuous course of the River Belize, a distance of one hundred and fifty miles, and disembarked at a point within sixteen or twenty miles of San Pedro, and yet in a direct line, less than sixty miles from Belize. Here they entered upon what resulted in a terrible and unfortunate march. All night the soldiers toiled manfully through mud and slush, under an almost incessant downpour of rain, and in the morning were met by a force of the enemy and a fight ensued. Volleys were interchanged, resulting in eighteen or twenty casualties on our side, and probably the like on the part of the enemy; for Indians invariably carry off their dead and wounded as they fall. Both sides, however, retreated from the field, leaving the action indecisive, while the unfortunate Commissioner, by some unexplained chance falling into the hands of the enemy, no doubt, added another to the victims of their cold-blooded cruelty."

Next January, Canul raided the village of Indian Church, and left a letter laying claim to the whole of Belize, and demanding 19,000 pesos a year rent. This was too much, a militia was organised and an Expeditionary Force of the 4th West Indians, the militia and a rocket tube were dispatched to the Yucuatan. This made 300 men, but it was the rocket tube that made the most impression on the Maya. Artillery was impossible in the terrain but the rocket tubes were easily portable and could burn villages to the ground from a distance. After raids on the Icaiche capital  at San pedro, and then other centres, it looked like Canul had been taught a lesson. He hadn´t.

Raiding started again almost immediately, and in 1870 Canl occupid Corozal. The 4,500 population were mostly refugees and put up no resistance, though they put in huge claims for compensation to the British government afterwards. The last raid was on Orange Walk in 1872.

The Orange Walk Raid, September 1st 1872

Orange Walk in 1872, after A.B. Ellis (1885)

Unlike Corozol, Orange Walk had a garrison, although it was woefully unprepared for attack, not least because of a rather suspicious reluctance of the Mestizos to have an official British presence in their midst. As early as 1868 the British commander was complaining that the townsfolk were trying to deny fresh water to the garrison.

The garrison were housed in a small complex in the centre of the town, 36 men of the First West India Regiment.The West Indian regiments were composed mainly of black soldiers and British officers, the troops having a distinctive "Zouave" type uniform of red fez with a white turban, red sleeveless jacket over a white shirt and dark blue breeches. In Orange Walk the troops were in a 60 x 20 ft barracks, Lieutenant Graham Smith and Staff Assistant Surgeon Edge in Offiecrs Quarters nearby. The rest of the town of 1,200 was formed from small thatched houses and stores, with a few of the wealthier residents in fortified houses.

 The 1st West India Regiment at the time, A.B. Ellis

On that quiet Sunday morning there was no warning whatsoever of an attack, until Canul's 150 men erupted into the town, one group separating to loot the stores, another two groups attacking the barracks, one to the south east behind log piles by the river, the other sheltering in houses to the southwest. Such was the surprise that Smith and Edge were taking their morning baths at the time and barely had time to bolt through gunfire to the barracks, Dr Edge apparently  "in a state of nudity". Their situation was not not much better there (though presumably Edge found something to wear). There were two problems, a) the thin wood and plaster walls were not bullet proof, b) apart from a few sentrys all the troops were unarmed, ammunition being stored in the guardroom, the key to which Smith had left in his house! Iron bedsteads were used to fortify the walls and Lt Smith and Staff Sergeant Belizario ran back to get the key, somehow running the gauntlet of fire without getting hit.

Lt. Smith took up position at the door on the western side, but within minutes he fell with a serious wound, and private Lynch fell dead at his side. Command now rested with Sergeant Belizario and Dr. Edge, who kept up such a good fire that the Maya decided to burn the barracks rather than storm it. This seemed easy enough, but all they managed to do was burn down the nearby houses, in fact helping the garrison by clearing the cover around, so the Indians had to withdraw back to the log piles.
The next development was unexpected by both sides. About noon two white men appeared behind the Mayan ranks, shooting left and right and then running for the barracks. These were Mr. J.W. Price and Mr. O.E.Boudreaux, not British at all but two ex-Confederates who had settled in the area and decided to lend a hand. This enraged the Indians but there was nothing they could do except keep firing which they did until about 1-30. By 2pm all seemed quiet, and when Sgt. Belizario went out to check the enemy had gone.

The raid had left three dead in the town, two soldiers and a boy at the fortified house of Don Escalente in the town, 31 were wounded, including 14 soldiers. The Icaiche lost about 50 dead and many wounded, including, crucially, Marcus Canul, who died of his wounds.

Aftermath

Sgt. Belizario was awarded a well deserved Distinguished Conduct Medal , whilst Lt. Smith, Dr. Edge, and Lance Corporals Spencer and Stirling were all promoted and several of the Privates were highly commended.

The new chief of the Icaiche"General" Rafael Chan declared that he had never wanted to raid the British in the first place, and promised peace. Taking this with a pinch of salt, the authorities increased the defences of Orange Walk in 1874, and in 1876 built Fort Cairns, a proper bullet proof fort with a moat and draw bridge. Although further immigration from the Yucatan caused problems over the years the era of the Mayan raids was over.

Further reading

A fuller description of the Orange Walk raid can be found at the History of Orange Walk Town site
http://www.orangewalk.net/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=55&Itemid=55%28

Histry of the First West India Regiment by AB Ellis (1885). (Project Gutenberg ebook).

Mr Hales´s Rockets and the Kossuth Affair

In April 15th 1853 a large building in Lower Deptford Road, Rotherhithe belonging to a Mr Hale was raided by the police, finding 257 lb of "gunpowder", and "... upwards of seventy cases, closely packed, containing, apparently for transmission to some distance, several thousand rockets, not such as are used at Vauxhall, but for the purpose of war". The rockets "were of great size, formed of cases with cast iron heads, and filled with powder."

Rockets were made in the building in the centre and stored on the shed on the left. The large factory behind was a rice mill and unconnected.

Hales and his son, who was also arrested, were taken to Bow Street Police Court and charged with possession of more than 200lb of gunpowder within 3 miles of the City of London (less than 200lb was apparently ok) and the illegal manufacture of rockets or fireworks. There was a vigorous argument whether it was actually gunpowder, Hales claiming it was "rocket composition" and if ignited would only "fizz like the Devil" whilst the laboratory of the Woolwich Arsenal counter claimed it would work exactly like gunpowder if loaded into a pistol, which they proved, The magistrate, Mr Henry, ruled that Hale was clearly guilty on both counts but the charge of rocket manufacture was withdrawn by the Crown whilst the gunpowder charge was referred to a sessions court.

Witnesses in the case included " some foreigners who were employed by Mr. Hales were witnesses. They were Hungarian refugees, who had been recommended by M. Kossuth, who seemed to take much interest in the manufacture." (Annual Register 1854) - it was this Hungarian connection which led to questions in the House, and it was also this that threatened to cause a major international incident between the British Empire and the Empire of Austro Hungary.

The Hungarian Revolution of 1848

In 1848 revolutionary fervour wept across Europe - in the sprawling Austro Hungarian Empire this was expressed as a revolt by the Hungarian part and a desperate bid for independence. There were victories against the Austrians, and even against a Russian Expeditionary force at the battle of Hermanstatt, but the forces ranged against them were simply too large. The Hungarians lost their capital Pest (Budapest is historically Buda and Pest, two cities on opposite banks of the Danube) and although they retook it and actually forced the Austrians back towards Vienna, they had to surrender at Vilagos in 1849.

Austrian trooper in the Raketen Korps (New York Public Library)

The Hungarian leader, Lajos Kossuth, escaped via Turkey and became the Hungarian voice in exile. Energetic, charismatic, he was a big hit in France and in October 1851 he landed in Britain. He received a hugely popular reception, with even a procession through London and a crowd of 75,000 people in Birmingham. He was also sympathetically received by the foreign secretary, Lord Palmerston, though they didn't officially meet, and there were many speeches against both the Austrians and the Russians.

After a wildly successful tour of the United States Kossuth returned to England, and formed part of a vocal Hungarian emigrant community.

Rockets

Congreve rockets had been used by the British in the Napoleonic wars, even mounted on ships. They looked, basically, like huge versions of the fireworks we use today, mounted on long sticks. William Hale, an English inventor, thought he could do better, and in 1844 patented a new type of rocket. Basically, his rockets vented part of their gases through little holes at the side, spinning the rocket like a rifle bullet and doing away with the need for a stick altogether. Not only did this make the rockets much more accurate, but they were also more portable, easily carried by mules. This made them ideal for expeditionary warfare. By 1846 the US army was using 6 pound Hale Rockets in their invasion of Mexico, firing hundreds during the siege of the port of Vera Cruz. They were also used at the battles of Cerro Gordo, Churubusco & Chapultepec.

US artillery outside Veracruz, with rockets in the background

The British army tried out the rockets, but didn't take any (although they were later to adopt an improved version in 1867) and so Hale looked around for other markets. His son declared in 1853 that patents had been sold to the US, Denmark, Switzerland "and other foreign powers".

These included the Austrian Empire. The Austrians had experimented with Congreve rockets as early as 1808, establishing a factory at Wiener-Neustadt and establishing one of the largest rocket corps in Europe.By 1856, the rocket corps contained 3,865 men (and 2,460 horses) , with 20 batteries, each of 8 rocket frames. In the campaigns of 1848/9 rockets of the Feuerwerk Corps (!) were used to considerable effect, in mountain warfare against the Italians, and in Hungary, the unit commander Field Marshall Franz von Hauslab declaring that "During the Hungarian campaign enemy cavalry always fled when rockets were used against them".

The Austrians were therefore not best pleased to hear that the Hungarians might be acquiring rockets of their own.

The Kossuth Affair

Lajos Kossuth

As a guard against industrial espionage, and possibly because they were cheaper, Hale preferred to employ foreign labour. A man named Usener had previously presented himself to Kossuth asking for work, and Kossuth directed him to Hale. How Hale and Kossuth knew each other is even now unclear, and there have been documents found in Hungarian archives suggesting that Hale and Kossuth were at least considering some sort of deal. That Usener had apparently served in the Hungarian artillery is also suggestive. On the other hand, Usener almost immediately went to the Austrian embassy and told them Hale was supplying rockets to the Hungarians, implying a certain amount of espionage on the Austrian side. Whatever Usener`s motives were, it was at the Embassy's request that British police searched both Kossuth´s house, and Hales's factory. They found no evidence of collusion, nor had there been any from previous police surveillance of Kossuth, and so, at the insistence of Palmerston, the matter was dropped. Palmerston's pro-Hungarian sympathies were well known, and he was forced to claim in the House that..

"I can assure my hon. friend that he is mistaken in supposing that the government are acting in this matter upon any pledge, promise, or engagement given to any foreign government, except that given in the face of parliament, viz., that we should use our utmost exertions to enforce the law in this country, for the purpose of preventing that shelter, which I trust will always be given to foreign exiles who may come here from any political cause whatever, being abused for the purpose of organising or carrying on hostile proceedings against other countries."

It has to be said that these claims were not universally accepted.

In fact the affair damaged neither Hale nor Kossuth. William Hale and his son continued developing and selling rockets, eventually winning a British army contract which saw Hale rockets used around the Empire, from the Abyssinia to the Zulu war. Kossuth continued as the unofficial head of Hungarian resistance, even organising Hungarian foreign legions for the Crimean and Franco Austrian war, although neither saw action. But the infighting so common in expatriate groups took its toll, and the leadership back in Hungary gradually came to terms with Vienna and signed an accord in 1867. Kossuth moved to Turin, and died in Italy in 1894.

Further Reading

Hungary & it's revolutions (1854)

http://books.google.co.uk/books?id=vnEIAAAAQAAJ&pg=PR20&lpg=PR20&dq=austro+hungarian+%22hale+rockets%22&source=bl&ots=0qr5SQDu8D&sig=cl9zOBA6uNRc-DAosY67k8KvWFc&hl=pt-BR&ei=kdWmTqqXO4qdgQf46ckz&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=1&ved=0CBYQ6AEwADgK#v=onepage&q=hale&f=false

The New Monthly Magazine (William Harrison Ainsworth) 1856

http://books.google.co.uk/books?id=XjoFAAAAQAAJ&pg=PA181&dq=austrian+rocket+batteries&hl=pt-BR&ei=wyWoTtXcPIacgQervJ0E&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=7&ved=0CEsQ6AEwBg#v=onepage&q=%20rocket%20batteries&f=false

Blazing the trail - the early history of rocketry (Mike Gruntman) 2004

http://books.google.ca/books?id=2XY9KXxF8OEC&pg=PA58&lpg=PA58&dq=hales+rockets+mexico&source=bl&ots=gFEaxjc_ti&sig=jxuWhurmBQCc3uRfXwloj3VWphw&hl=en&ei=AyzgTvmWKILcggfcnuDyBQ&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=4&ved=0CDAQ6AEwAw#v=onepage&q=hales%20rockets%20mexico&f=false

Maximilian's Austrians - in action

Mexico was very much an active posting for the Austrians, Poles and Hungarians of the Austrian Legion, and for example, most families were left back home in Europe. When the wife and children of Edmund, Graf Wickenburg, arrived a fellow officer wrote "What a decision for a woman with her children! Such a long journey to lead a Mexican officer's life!", even though they were based in the capital, Mexico city. The countryside was full of bandits and all transport required strong escort.

The usual pattern was for a few rifle companies with cavalry support, and Mexican auxiliaries, to be launched as flying columns against insurgent targets. The cavalry were sometimes sent out by themselves as independent squadrons, such as an Uhlan (lancer) squadron under Ernst Graf Fünfkirchen, who mainly operated against local gangs in the countryside, but unfortunately there is little record of these "police" actions, sometimes just the name of a town in the official biographies of officers.

For example, the official biography for Karl Manussi von Montesole, an Unterlieutenant 1st class in the Jagers at this time, lists the following for 1865;
“Tezuitlan, Zacapoaxtla, Azala, Hochiapulca, las Lomas, Hachiapulca, Elxochito, Comaltepec, la Hoya, Tetela d'Oro, Zantla, dos Cerros and the storming of Tlapacoyan”
and for 1866:
"Apolecca, several smaller battles against Porfirio Diaz, Tehuacan and Hnajuapan”

Austrian Legionaires, Puebla

The first major offensive was launched against the Sierra del Norte from July 1865. The forces here were mainly indigenous Cuatecomacos under General Francisco Lucas. They had already resisted an earlier French assault, but Thun took care to recruit local forces from the plains, especially cavalry. His artillery, under Weinhara, were not ready at the start, but followed on and soon made their presence felt. This was a war of ambush and the storming of towns, the artillery were useful but suffered heavily and one consequence was the urgent training of every gunner in use of a rifle, as previously gunners in the Austrian army were unarmed, and helpless in an ambush.

Teziutlan

Austrian Jagers in Mexico, Note the Imperial Mexican flag

Thun's campaign was energetically conducted, with Republican troops attacked at every opportunity. The first major target was the heavily defended town of Teziutlan, garrisoned by about 1,000 men, a third of them cavalry. Thun at this point had neither Austrian cavalry or, crucially, artillery, but he sent 3 companies of Jagers, and about 75 Mexican cavalry. Somehow they managed to reach the town undetected after a night march and at dawn they attacked, the 6th company under Captain Hassinger von Perote reaching and taking the market place. Lietenant Manussi von Montesole won the Bronze Military medal, but sadly Hassinger died from his wounds. The survivors dug in and repelled a counter attack a few days later. This first victory made news in Mexico and in far off Austria, the Emperor himself saying that "if I lived a long time there would not be good day, as the news of this beautiful affair,"

The Sierra del Norte

From a secure base at Tezuitlan in July Thun struck out in all directions. Huahuaxtla was taken without a fight, and a stand at the bridge at Apulco was broken by two mountain guns (now arrived) and a flank attack by Mexican cavalry. Another battle group with an infantry company and Mexican lancers took Tetela. Tlapacoyan repelled one attack, but was stormed at bayonet point on November 22nd and the defenders scattered leaving many rifles and ammunition behind. Unterlieutenant Karl Manussi von Montesole of the Jagers received the Order of our beloved Madonna of Guadalupe for his part in this.

It hadn´t gone all their own way however. On 17th July, Captain Graf Karl Kurtzrock -Wellingbuttel led 3 platoons of his 3rd lancers (64 mounted and 55 on foot) and some 115 Mexican troops against the mountain village of Ahuacatlan. Presumably the lancers on foot borrowed rifles as there were only 16 carbines per squadron, a major deficiency in this type of op. Attacked by 3 x their numbers they were forced into the church were they resisted for several hours before their captain was killed and the remaining 28 survivors, most of whom were severely wounded, surrendered. Fortunately for them a squadron of lancers under Oberleutnant Wolf-Metternich, having made a forced march, managed to free them a few days later.

Hussars in the Sierra de Huahtla

Hussar officers in Puebla

Eventually by the end of 1865 the area was under Imperial control and towns and villages garrisoned. On a small scale, victories continued in 1866. One example comes from the official report of an officer of the hussars in June 1866.
In Tehuacan in the the Sierra de Huahutla he received news from local sympathisers that there was a concentration of the enemy at Mazatlan and he set out with a small force of 15 hussars and 26 native infantry to disperse them. He set out at noon for Teotitlan where he discussed the operation with a local official, Luis Rosa, who gave him valuable advice on the terrain, and arranged some indian scouts. The enemy were over 200 strong, and virtually inaccessible in the mountains, but in true hussar style they decided to attack. It all depended on surprise.

They set off at night, at 9pm, on a "very arduous" march, up into the hills through dense forest and narrow clefts in the rock, so tortuous that much of the time they had to lead their horses by hand. At midnight they met two Indian scouts, who confirmed that the enemy were still unaware of their presence, so they carried on until at 6am they reached Mazatlan, where they stopped to rest the men and horses. Eventually they reached a spot below the ridge where they knew the enemy to be. Leading the horses along a circuitous path through bushes the hussars timed their attack to match the arrival of the infantry who marched straight up "at astonishing speed". At the summit the hussars and sentries saw each other at the same time and all hell broke loose, the sentries screaming "los sombreritos, los húngaros" - "the little hats, the Hungarians".

Galloping forward to survey the situation the commander saw how strong the position was, and that only an immediate attack stood any chance of success. The hussars charged straight at the infantry at full gallop, jumping a fortification ditch, and smashing the firing line that was starting to form so the Republicans routed, and it turned into a "witch hunt". The hussars were joined by their infantry and despite their exhaustion after the overnight march, many enemy were captured or driven into the the heights of Huahutla. All the enemy´s equipment and leaders were captured except one, the chief, who was attacked by the hussar commander at sword point and unhorsed, but still escaped.

Santa Gertrudis and the end of the Adventure

Nonetheless, during 1866 the troops became progressively more disheartened. There was a strong feeling that they should have been back in Austria, defending the homeland in the disastrous war with Prussia. Republican forces were better armed, and French withdraws in the face of US and Prussian pressure damaged morale still further.

The Austrians assembling in Matmouros, June 1866

As well, their Mexican allies in the Imperial army, who had never been very reliable, were now openly defecting to the enemy, most disasterously at Santa Gertrudis on June 14th. Two infantry companies and two guns had been ordered to escort a wagon train from the port of Matamoros to Monterey, together with 1,000 Mexicans under General Olivera. They were shadowed by 2,000 Republicans under Escobedo, and when the moment was right he attacked with his whole force. Olivera bolted, but the Austrians, who were leading the column, made a stand using the wagons as cover, and drove off the first attack, including a counter charge with bayonets. What happened next is disputed, but Austrian accounts claim that Olivera's Mexicans defected and attacked them from behind. Virtually all the Austrians present were killed in the fighting or captured and executed.

Things came to a head when they heard they were to be placed under the command of a Mexican general, Marquez. They protested and in December 1866 the legion was disbanded – most went home to Austria.

Maximillian's Austrians - Puebla

The mid 1860s saw several powers intervening in the chaos that was Mexico, France, Spain, the United States and Britain, but perhaps one of the most unlikely was Austria-Hungary. The simple reason was that the French candidate for the throne was an Austrian duke, Maximillian, brother of the Emperor. To back him up 6,400 troops were sent with him. These were volunteers, attracted by high pay, and in the case of officers, a rank one above whatever they were in the Austrian army.

Notwithstanding the fact that an army from a cold central European country was campaigning in the tropics, it was actually quite a well balanced and well thought out force, composed of experienced troops and officers with many years experience fighting Italians, and the French. 3 Jager (rifle) battalions, each of 6 companies, Hussar and Uhlan (lancer) regiments (each of 5 squadrons) and 3 mountains artillery batteries armed with 3 pdr guns. This was the Austrian Legion, well suited for counter insurgency work.

The volunteers mustered in Ljubljana and marched to Trieste from where they sailed across the Atlantic. From the French controlled port of Vera Cruz they marched 250 miles inland, their first experiance of Mexican conditions. They were heading to Puebla, to be brigaded with various Mexican units, under the command of the Austrian Major General Thun.

Puebla conquered by the French, 1863

The importance of Puebla was that it lay on the road from Veracruz, traditional site for invading Mexico, to the capital Mexico City. Consequently when the French made clear their desire to annex Mexico it was heavily fortified. On the 5th of May 1862 the French attacked, expecting an easy victory, 6,500 advancing with artillery support against 4,500, but the Republican Mexican troops held out against 3 assault's, and then counter attacked with cavalry earning a crushing victory. May 5th is a holiday in Mexico to this day. Unfortunately, next year almost to the day, the French attacked again with 30,000 men and stormed the city. What was left was given over to the Austrians to garrison.

Calle Pitimini, Puebla, 1863

General Thun had been wounded fighting the French at Solferino just a few years earlier, so it is perhaps not surprising that he resisted coming under French control at Puebla, even indirectly as part of the Imperial army. The Austrian legion was strongly independent. The commander of the artillery, Anton Weinhara, built a self sufficient arsenal in Puebla, with even a carriage workshop and tannery.

In October 1867 a visiting Austrian lady described the barracks in Puebla as very dirty, but the countryside as "charming" with "green maize fields, and between them gigantic cactuses in the full splendour of their gorgeous blossoms and other exotic flowers. all around were high mountains, and amongst them the highest peaks of all America, viz, Popocatepetl, the Sierra Nevada and the peak of Orizaba, all of them of course covered in snow".

Puebla 1866, with mountains behind

Arms & uniforms

Without any tropical experience, the Austrians made it up as they went along. Most cultivated a "wild" appearance, with large shaggy beards and all foot troops wore a simple dark blue loose shirt. Vests and baggy trousers were dark red, and hats were either light grey felt (with grey plumes for the jagers), simple red caps, or even sometimes sombreros. The cavalry were slightly more ornate, the Hussars with dark green attilas with white braid over the ubiquitous blue shirt, small grey felt hats and tight red trousers. The Uhlans wore dark green jackets and baggy trousers, and again sometimes sombreros on campaign. Arms were of Austrian Lorenz make, either short rifles for the Jagers or pistols for the cavalry, who of course also had swords or lances, and officers usually supplied their own side arms. The one weakness was that the cavalry were trained for European warfare, they were good at scouting but very few had carbines and their pistols were single shot. Any fighting, at least initially, was done with the blade. They also had to find horses. Local Mexican horses were good quality, but smaller than those they were used to in Europe.

A lancer captain in campaign dress, 1866

This was the Austrian legion, good professional troops, but about to enter a very bitter civil war. As we shall see, they saw plenty of action.

Further reading

Osprey have a book thats a good source for uniforms, The Mexican Adventure 1861-7
The Austro Hungarian army site has an interesting series of officer biographies (http://www.austro-hungarian-army.co.uk/)
There is another good site (in German) at
http://www.zapfenstreich.at/mexiko.freikorps/freikorps.html

There are also several books in Google Books that give the Austrian point of view, with some contempory reports. These are often in German, but can be easily translated into English on the web...
Mexiko oder Republik und Kaiserreich
Patriotism, Politics, and Popular Liberalism in Nineteenth Century Mexico
My diary in Mexico in 1867 including the last days of the Emperor

Spain in 1860s America - Sources

General sources for the period

Illustrated London News (various online)

New York Public Library (excellent for uniforms)
http://digitalgallery.nypl.org/nypldigital/dgtitle_tree.cfm?level=2&title_id=614973

The New York Times
http://www.nytimes.com/ref/membercenter/nytarchive.html

British library digital archive
http://www.bl.uk/onlinegallery/index.html

Google books (always worth a look)

Spanish forces

Spanish cruisers

http://oceania.pbworks.com/w/page/8470660/Spanish-Cruisers

Order of battle of the Spanish forces in Santo Domingo October 1863

http://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fuerzas_espa%C3%B1olas_en_Santo_Domingo_en_octubre_de_1863

Cazadores

Battalion Segorbe (not in Santo Domingo)
http://www.aulamilitar.com/BATALLON_SEGORBE_1856_1960.pdf


History

Spanish Morrocan war (1859)

http://www.balagan.org.uk/war/spanish-moroccan-war/index.htm
Good general guide to the Spanish army of teh time

Mexico
Spain and Vera Cruz

The History of Mexico 1832 - 1918 by Herbert Howe Bancroft
http://www.archive.org/details/historyofmexico14bancrich

Santo Domingo

Santo Domingo heads of Administraion 1861 - 65
http://www.archontology.org/nations/dominicana/00_1861_1865_s.php

The Dominican Republic: a national history By Frank Moya Pons (very thorough)
http://books.google.ca/books?id=8BfRF9B02kgC&printsec=frontcover&source=gbs_ge_summary_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q&f=false

España vuelve - Spain's return to the Americas in the 1860s. Part 1

The 1850s saw a remilitarisation of Spain, as Queen Isabella struggled to gain popularity by recapturing past glories. This started well with a victory against Morocco at Tetouan and gains on the Moroccan coast which Spain holds to this day. Encouraged, the Spanish looked further afield, especially to the Americas. The massive loss of their South American colonies still rankled, and it had been clear for a while that the US had eyes on what was left, especially Cuba. As early as 1850, US politicians were making clear their desire for the island, and in 1858 President Buchanan addressed Congress hinting at annexation, or compulsory purchase.

Queen Isabella II

The American civil war presented a welcome breathing space for Spain, and an opportunity to either to intervene directly or to expand their presence in the Americas. They shied away from recognising the Confederacy, not least because Southern politicians had been those most vocal in calling for annexation of Cuba, but a 2nd Reconquista, that was possible.

All this was going to take strength, and allies. The Spanish fleet was built up and modernised until it was judged the 4th most powerful in the world, with modern ships, including the Numancia, an ironclad frigate and not only one of the most powerful ships afloat but also blessed with a huge range. She would go on to be the first ironclad to circumnavigate the globe. There were also several modern steam powered frigates, making a relatively small but potent fleet. Significantly, these were long range, blue water, forces, not designed just for coastal defence. Spain at this time also still held Cuba, the Philippines and Puetro Rico, despite numerous revolts, providing island bases.

The first opportunity to assert herself was Mexico. Following victory in a civil war, largely with United States aid, the new government of Benito Juarez suspended debt interest payments to Britain, France and Spain, the major creditors. Intense negations took place between the French, Spanish, British and the United States, who were also invited to take part. The US declined, but nonetheless, the other three powers, for their own very different reasons, signed the Treaty of London agreeing to impose a solution by blockading the Mexican coast and occupying the main port of Vera Cruz.

The Spanish government had been angry at Mexico for some time, not just for debt default, but also for attacks on Spanish citizens in Mexico, and for ideological reasons, the Spanish Court identifying much more with the opponents of Juarez. There had even been suggestions of a declaration of war but these were defused, in part by General Prim, one of the victors in Morocco who was actually married to a niece of Juarez's treasurer!

General Prim at the battle of Tetuan

The British basically wanted their money back and had some sympathy for the Juarez cause, whilst the Americans were firmly in the Mexican camp, partly as an application of the Monroe doctrine, and the American Secretary of State, Seward, even offered to pay interest on the debt. The French, as was to become clear, had other motives.

The Spanish were first on the scene. Early in November, the Mexican authorities received word of preparations in Havana to send 6,000 troops and 15-16 ships to Vera Cruz, including 6 frigates and 6 "war steamers". Unfortunately for the Mexicans the fortress at San Juan de Ulua was clearly not up to the task of repelling them, so the Mexicans decided to withdrew it's artillery to use elsewhere, though only 50 guns out of about 200 were actually removed.

On the 14th December 1861 the Spanish fleet arrived at Vera Cruz and took possession without resistance, the commander General Gasset, declaring martial law and that he would hold the city in the name of Queen Isabella until the commissioners of the other powers arrived. Spanish flags were hoisted on public buildings, and the fortress. Gasset did stress however that there were no territorial intentions. Nonetheless, the New York Times of 28th December 1861 was already reporting guellia activity in the countryside and the dispatch of Spanish cavalry to deal with it.

The expeditionary force, again as reported by the New York Times, was

Two battalions of Chasseurs.

First battalion of the Infantry Regiment "Napoles."

First Battalion of the Infantry Regiment of Cuba.

Four companies of the Second battalion "del Rey."

6,000 men with another 5,000 sailors and marines and 300 horses.

General Prim inspecting the Spanish forces in Vera Cruz

The Mexican government responded by dispatching 3,000 men under General Zaragoza, and a further 52,000 were called in from the provinces. They fortified mountain passes leaving Vera Cruz, but made no move to invade the town, whilst Gasset steered clear of regular Mexican troops. Atrocities against Spanish, French and British nationals, one of the complaints of the allies,increased and many were driven from the country. In Vera Cruz, an American correspondent described the Spanish troops as " .... a very fine body of men, and are kept under strict discipline, so that no complaints have been made against them by the inhabitants of the town."

Although there was no clash of regular forces, the guerrilla situation was different. Spanish troops made incursions towards La Antigua, Anton Lizardo and on the Mediillin road in search of supplies and guerrillas. Men lost dead and as prisoners to the jarochos, which amounted to the same thing. By next May only 4,000 of the 6,000 troops were available for active service.

Soldier from the Cuban garrison 1862

Gasset was soon replaced by Prim, the same who ws married into the Mexican government. He had his work cut out dealing with the locals, and his allies. On 27th December the French force arrived, consisting of 1,300 marines, 500 Zouaves, 500 marine fusiliers, 200 marine artillery, 60 marine gunners, 50 engineers to a total of 2,610.

By the next May French intentions were becoming evident, to the dismay of their erstwhile allies. The British marine contingent withdrew, and then the Spanish, now under general prim. Apparently Prim accosted the French general De Lorencez what were his intentions and was astounded to get the answer that the French were going to march on Mexico city. This was not all what they had signed up for and Prim hastily assembled his surprised staff and started to organise a withdraw. The Spanish army was conveyed to Havana on Royal Navy ships, having refused an offer from the french navy, and Prim continued to Madrid. Although not keen on his sympathies for the Juaristas, the Spanish government supported his actions, only too glad not to be dragged into the France's Mexican adventure.