Europe and the Barbary Pirates, Part 2

From the 16th to the early 19th centuries pretty much all the European countries with a coast line suffered slaving raids from vessels of the North African Barbary states of Algiers, Tunis, Tripoli and Sale, as well as seizure of their ships. It´s estimated that between 1530 and 1780 1-1.25 million Europeans were taken as slaves to North Africa, as well as many more Africans. Most of the European slaves came from Italy and Spain, but about 20,000 British and Irish suffered the same fate, many were kidnapped sailors. Records are incomplete, but show 466 vessels taken between just 1609 and 1616, whilst 160 British ships were captured by the Algerians alone between 1677 and 1680. In 1641 the John Filmer, was captured just outside Cork, the crew taken to Algiers, whilst in 1656 seven fishing boats and 42 men were kidnapped near Falmouth.

 Initially there was little that could be done, due to the strength of the Barbary powers, but gradually a pattern emerged of individual European navies bombarding the pirate ports until an agreement was reached to exclude that particular country's ships from piracy. Such agreements tended to be temporary, and especially in the Mediterranean slave raids were a constant fear until the power of the Barbary pirates was eventually destroyed.

Timeline

1630s
Various peace treaties made by England with the Barbary states, but most are quickly broken.

1661 and 1663
The Dutch Navy under Michiel de Ruyter forces an agreement with the Barbary states, but it doesn't last long.

1670
The Dutch Navy launches a punitive expedition against the Barbary States.

 The Dutch fleet at Tripoli, 1670

1671
An English squadron under Edward Spagge destroys 10 pirate ships at Bougie Bay near Algiers, the strongest of the Barbary states. Spragge follows this up with a bombardment of the city, sinking several ships, and Algiers signs a peace treaty with England

1675
A Royal Navy squadron under Sir John Narborough forces a treaty with Tunis and, after bombardment of the city, with Tripoli.

1676
Sale signs a peace treaty with England

1677
Algiers,. not unexpectedly, breaks their peace treaty with England, but a series of defeats at the hands of an English squadron under Arthur Herbert forces them to make peace in 1682, which actually lasts until 1816.

1682
French Navy bombards Algiers

 The French attack on Algiers, 1682

1683
French Navy bombards Algiers again

1686
French Navy bombards Tripoli and forces a peace treaty

1688
French Navy bombards Algiers yet again and finally a peace treaty is signed.

1783 and 84
The navy of Spain, long one of the worst sufferers of Barbary piracy, bombards Algiers, with 4x ships of the line, as well as two each from Portugal and Naples and one from Malta, in a rare example of national cooperation. Over 20,000 cannon balls are fired, much of the city and it´s fortifications are destroyed and most of the Algerian fleet sunk. The Spanish threaten to return every year until a peace treaty is signed and the Algerians give in, as do the Tunisians when threatened with similar treatment.

1784-86
The Venetian Navy blockades Tunis and several neighbouring towns, but isn't strong enough to force an agreement.

1784 - 1802
Algiers, Morocco and Tripoli demand huge amounts from the USA to prevent piracy of American ships.

1802
The USS Enterprise, of the newly formed US Navy, defeated the Tripoli, from, actually, Tripoli.

1803
Tripoli forces capture the USS Philadelphia and take her crew hostage.

1804
American forces under Lt. Decatur board and destroy the Philadelphia. US forces blockade Tripoli and try to capture the city, unsuccessfully. US and allied forces conquer the nearby city of Derma in 1805. Tripoli signs a peace treaty, though gains a large ransom for the captured American crews.

1815
Following renewed piracy against US ships, two squadrons of the US navy are sent to the Mediterranean. The Algerian flagship is captured and under threat of bombardment Algiers returns all prisoners and signs a treaty.


The End of the Barbary States

The Napoleonic Wars ended with Europe united as never before, and England having the most experienced and powerful navy the world had yet seen. England was also acquiring a new mission, the abolition of the slave trade. These factors should have encouraged the Barbary states to "keep their heads down" - it didn´t.

In 1815 a squadron from Tunis sacked Palma on the island of Sardinia and carried off 158 inhabitants to slavery. This caused outrage in Europe, and a number of accusations that Britain´s new found enthusiasm for abolition was more about reducing the competitiveness of their rivals in the Americas than slavery as such. In response Lord Exmouth was sent to the Mediterranean with a Royal Naval squadron to wring concessions from the Barbary powers, not least a pledge to treat Christian captives prisoners of war rather than slaves, as the pretext for the Palma raid was a "war" between Tunis and the Kingdoms of Sardinia and Sicily.

 The bombardment of Algiers, 1816

Exmouth´s diplomacy had appeared to work, with agreement form all parties, only for a group of Sardinian fishermen to be attacked and massacred. Fed up with this, Exmouth returned with an Anglo-Dutch squadron and on August 17th 1816 bombarded Algiers. Following this Algiers and Tunis signed new treaties.

And again slave raiding continued, with another bombardment of Algiers in 1824 by a British fleet under Admiral Sir Harry Neal (it´s amazing there were any buildings still standing by now), but the scourge was only ended for good with the occupation and annexation of Algiers by the French in 1830.

The Tunisian fleet was defeated by the British in 1826 and by the French in 1827, but perhaps because it was technically under Ottoman Turkish protection, the city was not occupied until the French arrived in 1881.

Tripoli had long been, technically, part of the Ottoman empire, but infact was ruled by the descendants of a Janissary rebellion. However in 1835 the Ottomans took back control, and Tripoli was part of the Empire until conquered by the Italians in 1911 during the Italo-Turkish War.

Red City - the Mutinies of Semarang

Semarang in Indonesia is now known locally as the Red City, after it´s Communist links. It was where Dutch immigrants started the local Communist party in 1920, and promptly started fighting with the Socialists. The city has had a troubled history.

The African mutiny, 1840

Local (left) and African soldiers in the KNIL

The Dutch in the 1830s faced a problem. They had a burgeoning empire in the East Indies, but it had to be policed. There were good local soldiers available, for instance the Amboinese, but there had already been one Javanese revolt in 1829 and arming more locals did not seem a good idea. Equally there were few Dutch willing to volunteer, and it was illegal to send Dutch conscripts to the East. The solution was to recruit African soldiers, who it was presumed would cope better with the climate, and have little reason to align themselves with the local population. To further ensure their loyalty, they were promised "European" status in terms of pay and conditions.
The original idea was to recruit Ashanti warriors, who had a superb reputation. Unfortunately, the Ashanti saw little point in volunteering for 15 years service in a distant land when they had a good thing going at home. But they were amenable to selling some of their slaves to the Dutch. These slaves were then technically "freed" (important to prevent interference from Royal Navy anti-slavery patrols on the West African coast) and the fee regarded as an advance on their pay. Over 2,000 were shipped to join the Dutch East Indies Army, the KLIN.

Now, the "European" status might have been seen as a bureaucratic slight of hand in the Hague, but it was taken very seriously by the Africans. On the other hand, to the Dutch officers in Batavia, they were unaccustomed to any European ways let alone military training, and of course hardly any spoke Dutch, or even the same African languages. By 1838 there were reports of disturbances throughout the army, Dutch officers reported that the Africans were "'choleric, quick-tempered and extremely insolent" and recommended only one African company per battalion, although "during military expeditions they demonstrated bravery and fearlessness, even more so than the Europeans. In combat their ardour needed to be tempered, otherwise they ignored the orders of their officers". Importantly, "it was repeatedly emphasised that the Africans looked down on the native population."

In December 1840 the military tribunal in Semarang tried a case of mutiny. This wasn´t the first incidence of trouble, but it was the first to go to court. In the garrison town of Kedong Kebo in central Java the 4th Infantry battalion had mutinied, or rather the 3rd, 4th and 5th African companies did. The cause was not a general sense of "anti-colonialism", but a feeling that they were losing their status as "Europeans" and being treated like "natives". Actually, a justified grievance as their bedding had been removed and their pay down graded. On 16th April the 3rd and 5th companies disobeyed their officers and stormed into the kitchens, from where they returned armed with wooden sticks. With the 4th company they then went for the arsenal "shouting rebellious slogans", but the commander had had prior warning, and filled it with European troops. The mutineers were dispersed and fled into the bush, followed by armed patrols. With little local support they were soon captured, and the ring leaders sentenced to 25 lashes and 2 years in prison, the rest to 14 days in prison. In 1841 there was another revolt on Sumatra that left 2 Africans dead, and in December 1841 recruitment in West Africa was stopped altogether

The use of African soldiers in the KNIL is discussed in more detail in "African mutinies in the Netherlands East Indies" (2003) by Ineke van Kessel, available by open access on the web

The Swiss mutiny, 1860

Lt Romswinckel

By 1860 Semarang was a major commercial centre, with about 30,000 people employed in import and export businesses, and a trade of 30 million guilders per year. The European population was 2nd only to Batavia. Nonetheless the KLIN still had the same manpower problem, and now they turned to the Swiss. The most famous mercenaries in Europe, surely this couldn´t go wrong? In Semarang it did. The "numerous" Swiss garrison revolted and terrified the merchants of the city with the prospect of "murder and looting". Fortunately for them a Dutch officer, Lt Joost Hendrik Romswinckel was on hand. He had already seen service in Boni, where he won the Military Order of William, and he had a reputation for calmness under fire. In one case he had hidden a leg wound from his native troops and only attended to it later in secret. This calmness served him well again, with a "handful" of loyal troops he faced down the mutineers and reestablished order. The city awarded him a jewelled sword in gratitude.

The Japanese mutiny, 1945

Japanese troops in Semarang, 1942

Like the rest of Java, Semarang was occupied by the Japanese in WW2. When they surrendered this left a vacuum which Indonesian nationalists immediately filled, declaring Independence on 17th August 1945. Unfortunately, in effect, this meant a complete breakdown in law and order, with murder and looting rife. Although the 5,000 Dutch in Semarang were worried, the 40,000 Chinese were terrified - they had suffered particularly under the Japanese and now were targeted by the Indonesians.

By this time British and Dutch troops had reestablished control in Batavia, but the Indian troops in Semarang were struggling. They had successfully evacuated many POWs, but power and water had been cut off and thousands of British, Dutch and Eurasians were forced into internment camps. There was another source of troops however. The Japanese battalion in Semerang under Major Kido had been confined to barracks since the surrender, though they had occasionally been used under strict Indian control to maintain order. Now Kido took matters into his own hands. In the early hours of October 15th the Japanese left their barracks, without permission, and moved into the city. They cleared the immediate area and then secured the internment camps. Next day, under heavy machine gun and sniper fire, they stormed the town jail, finding the bodies of 85 murdered Japanese, but rescuing another 50, and over 300 Europeans due to be executed the next day.

More Indian and British troops arrived, especially the 10th Gurkha Rifles and 5th Parachute brigade and the city came back under control. Electricity and water were reestablished, and in 1946 the city was handed back to Dutch troops. Kido's "mutiny" was soon over, but it saved a lot of lives, as Captain D.B. Friend, of the Gurkhas reported - 'There is little doubt that the internees at Semarang owed their lives to Kido and his men, for it was they who prevented the Indonesians from capturing the camps and massacring the inmates before the arrival of British troops'

The most famous mutiny of all

The mutiny

Ok, the Mutiny on the Bounty didn't start in Semarang, but Bligh and his companions did pass through on their way home, on Thursday September 24th 1789. As well as remarking that "the Custom among the dutch is to go to Sleep immediately after Dinner their time of Dining being precisely at Noon", he left this description...

"In the Morning Mr. de Bose did me the favour to show me the environs of this place . Its situation is pleasant, with fine Roads like Bowling Greens, for the Country except far back is level without any rising Grounds and is well Watered. The generality of the Houses are not well calculated for the Country but none of the superior ones particularly this of Mr. de Bose are Airy and built with Taste. The Chinese Town is apart from the Europeans, and so are the industrious people. The Markets are Large and supplied with great abundance of Legumes and Fruit and every article of Food is to be got at a very cheap rate.

But what does great honor to the Europeans here is a publick Hospital under the direction of Mr. Johannes Jacobus Abegg who is first Surgeon. Perhaps a more Airy, or a Situation more desirable for a Sick Man cannot be found, or is it possible for more cleanliness to be observed in any place whatever.

Here's also a public School supported by contributions and some other Helps from such Scholars as are able to pay for their education.The Mathematical Sciences are regularly and well taught and every young person may be properly educated to form a Complete Sea Officer. The Head Master Mr. Stainmitz is possessed of a few necessary Instruments but he wants a little practical knowledge of the use of them and of the manner of making Observations.

The Town is fortified and surrounded by a Wall & Ditch, on the whole perhaps they can mount 80 peices of Cannon. The Troupes are Commanded by a Colonel and their number may amount to 300 effective Europeans. Among those Officers who have honord me with a Visit was a Mr. C. C. Van Arnschild an Hanovarian Officer now in the Company Service whose Father is a General in Hanover".

The Dutch East Indies

In the mid 19th century the islands that we now know as Indonesia were the Dutch East Indies. Well, most of it. Some parts such as Batavia (modern Jakata) had been Dutch since the 1600s, other Sultanates and kingdoms were only acquired during the late 19th century, such as the Sultanate of Aceh, whose conquest took from 1873 to 1913, and the Balinese kingdoms in 1906 and 1908.

The Cities

Batavia (modern Jakarta)

Batavia Bay

Bataivia had been Dutch for centuries and was the administrative capital. Situated on the island of Java, it was where most technological developments tended to be introduced, such as horse trams and railways.

Buitenzorg (Bogor)
About 60kn from Batavia, and Dutch since 1694, it was the summer residence of the Governor General. The city was famous for it's botanical garden, which rather like an eastern Kew, was designed to both to increase knowledge of plants and to encourage agricultural development in the colony.

A Dutch sugar factory 1851

Soerabaia (Surabaya)
On the north coast of Java, and site of the main naval base due to a safe deep water harbour. In 1868*** the population was about 100,000 and the port included shipyards, docks, construction and retail warehouses. Soerabaia was defended by Fort Erfprins,on the seaward side and Fort Prins Hendrik on the landward side, with a substantial garrison. The Resident lived outside the city in the more congenial Simpang.

Bandung
Located 2,500 ft above sea level and surrounded by mountains, Bandung has a cooler climate than most of Java and was the centre of the tea industry, as well as the growth of cinchona plants, introduced for quinine production.

Makassar
Main port on the island of Celebes (Sulawesi) . Much of the island was under local rulers at this time, but Makassar was Dutch, protected by Fort Rotterdam and the Dutch enclave was named Vlaardingen. It was, and is, a major trading port, including the hair oil named after it (hence anti-makassars are cloths placed on the head rests of chairs to protect the upholstery from oil).

Banjamasin
The capital of Dutch Borneo and a Dutch protectorate from 1794 until 1860 when it was formerly annexed after the Banjarmasin war.

The Celebes in action against Dayack tribesmen in Borneo in 1859

The Army

The Dutch East Indies Army (Koninklijk Nederlands Indisch Leger; KNIL) was technically separate from the Dutch army as such, and it was actually illegal to send Dutch conscripts from Europe to the Dutch East Indies. Of course Dutch volunteers were welcome, and also many from Switzerland, Germany and Belgium, but at this time only about 40% of troops were of European descent, the rest a mixture of local Javanese, Timorese and other groups including Africans from Ghana. The officers and artillery gunners were always Dutch, but the sergeants often of the same race as the troops. In fact the various ethnic groups were usually quartered in separate buildings. In 1868 the army was approximately 20,000 strong*** divided amongst numerous garrisons and forts.

KNIL Malay soldiers in Sumatra 1873

There was no real external threat to the Dutch possessions at this time, but numerous operations expanding Dutch possessions, putting down revolts, or against pirates

1859-63 Bandjermasin War (Borneo)
1860 Riots on Ceram (Moluccan Islands)
1860 Revolt of Swiss army mercenaries at Semarang
1861 Defeat of pirates on the island of Saljusu
1862 Destruction of a pirates’ fleet near the Sangir Islands
1862 Expedition to Manipi, Tutungan and Mandar on Celebes / Sulawesi
1863 Expedition to Nias
1863 Expedition to the Toradja area on Celebes / Sulawesi
1864 Expeditions to Sintang and Marahunu
1865 Expedition to pirates near Menado / Manado, North-Celebes / Sulawesi
1865 Riots on Ceram (Moluccan Islands)
1865 Riots at Amunthai on Borneo
1866 Expedition to Pasumah, near Palembang on Sumatra
1866 Expedition to Ceram (Moluccan Islands)
1867 Expedition to Mandar on Celebes / Sulawesi
1868 Riots on Bali

The Navy

The Medusa in Japan 1864

Dutch naval forces in contrast remained part of the Royal Netherlands Navy. The Dutch navy was relatively strong and had a good reputation, but with Europe becoming an increasingly dangerous place the strongest vessels were kept in home waters. In 1859 it was composed as follows*

2 ships of the line of 84 guns each
3 ships of the line of 74 guns
7 first-class frigates (3 of them screws), 54 to 45 guns
8 second-class frigates, 38 to 36 guns
1 second-class rasee, 28 guns
10 corvettes (5 of them screws), 19 to 12 guns
7 brigs, 18 to 12 guns
10 screw schooners of 8 guns
27 smaller craft, mounting together 98 guns.
57 gunboats, (2 of them screw) mounting together 178 guns

In Asian waters, HNLMS Celebes was involved in operations in Borneo in 1859, and the squadron under de Man involved in the bombardment of Shimonoseki in 1864 was as follows;**

Medusa; Steam corvette. 18 guns, Captain Casembroot

Metalen Kruis.Screw corvette, 16 guns, Captain de Man, arrived from the Netherlands

Djambi. Screw corvette 1st class, 16 guns, Captain Van Rees

Amsterdam. Paddle steamer, 8 guns, Captain Muller

On separate occasions a party from the Medusa under Capt Casembroot and 200 Dutch sailors and marines under Lt Binkis were involved in landing operations against onshore fortifications.

*The navies of the world; their present state and future capabilities By Hans Busk 1859
**De Medusa in de wateren van Japan in 1863 en 1864 By F. de Casembroot 1865
*** Nederland, zijne Provincien en Kolonien: Land en Volk beschreven door By J. Kuijper 1868