Europe and the Barbary Pirates, Part 2

From the 16th to the early 19th centuries pretty much all the European countries with a coast line suffered slaving raids from vessels of the North African Barbary states of Algiers, Tunis, Tripoli and Sale, as well as seizure of their ships. It´s estimated that between 1530 and 1780 1-1.25 million Europeans were taken as slaves to North Africa, as well as many more Africans. Most of the European slaves came from Italy and Spain, but about 20,000 British and Irish suffered the same fate, many were kidnapped sailors. Records are incomplete, but show 466 vessels taken between just 1609 and 1616, whilst 160 British ships were captured by the Algerians alone between 1677 and 1680. In 1641 the John Filmer, was captured just outside Cork, the crew taken to Algiers, whilst in 1656 seven fishing boats and 42 men were kidnapped near Falmouth.

 Initially there was little that could be done, due to the strength of the Barbary powers, but gradually a pattern emerged of individual European navies bombarding the pirate ports until an agreement was reached to exclude that particular country's ships from piracy. Such agreements tended to be temporary, and especially in the Mediterranean slave raids were a constant fear until the power of the Barbary pirates was eventually destroyed.

Timeline

1630s
Various peace treaties made by England with the Barbary states, but most are quickly broken.

1661 and 1663
The Dutch Navy under Michiel de Ruyter forces an agreement with the Barbary states, but it doesn't last long.

1670
The Dutch Navy launches a punitive expedition against the Barbary States.

 The Dutch fleet at Tripoli, 1670

1671
An English squadron under Edward Spagge destroys 10 pirate ships at Bougie Bay near Algiers, the strongest of the Barbary states. Spragge follows this up with a bombardment of the city, sinking several ships, and Algiers signs a peace treaty with England

1675
A Royal Navy squadron under Sir John Narborough forces a treaty with Tunis and, after bombardment of the city, with Tripoli.

1676
Sale signs a peace treaty with England

1677
Algiers,. not unexpectedly, breaks their peace treaty with England, but a series of defeats at the hands of an English squadron under Arthur Herbert forces them to make peace in 1682, which actually lasts until 1816.

1682
French Navy bombards Algiers

 The French attack on Algiers, 1682

1683
French Navy bombards Algiers again

1686
French Navy bombards Tripoli and forces a peace treaty

1688
French Navy bombards Algiers yet again and finally a peace treaty is signed.

1783 and 84
The navy of Spain, long one of the worst sufferers of Barbary piracy, bombards Algiers, with 4x ships of the line, as well as two each from Portugal and Naples and one from Malta, in a rare example of national cooperation. Over 20,000 cannon balls are fired, much of the city and it´s fortifications are destroyed and most of the Algerian fleet sunk. The Spanish threaten to return every year until a peace treaty is signed and the Algerians give in, as do the Tunisians when threatened with similar treatment.

1784-86
The Venetian Navy blockades Tunis and several neighbouring towns, but isn't strong enough to force an agreement.

1784 - 1802
Algiers, Morocco and Tripoli demand huge amounts from the USA to prevent piracy of American ships.

1802
The USS Enterprise, of the newly formed US Navy, defeated the Tripoli, from, actually, Tripoli.

1803
Tripoli forces capture the USS Philadelphia and take her crew hostage.

1804
American forces under Lt. Decatur board and destroy the Philadelphia. US forces blockade Tripoli and try to capture the city, unsuccessfully. US and allied forces conquer the nearby city of Derma in 1805. Tripoli signs a peace treaty, though gains a large ransom for the captured American crews.

1815
Following renewed piracy against US ships, two squadrons of the US navy are sent to the Mediterranean. The Algerian flagship is captured and under threat of bombardment Algiers returns all prisoners and signs a treaty.


The End of the Barbary States

The Napoleonic Wars ended with Europe united as never before, and England having the most experienced and powerful navy the world had yet seen. England was also acquiring a new mission, the abolition of the slave trade. These factors should have encouraged the Barbary states to "keep their heads down" - it didn´t.

In 1815 a squadron from Tunis sacked Palma on the island of Sardinia and carried off 158 inhabitants to slavery. This caused outrage in Europe, and a number of accusations that Britain´s new found enthusiasm for abolition was more about reducing the competitiveness of their rivals in the Americas than slavery as such. In response Lord Exmouth was sent to the Mediterranean with a Royal Naval squadron to wring concessions from the Barbary powers, not least a pledge to treat Christian captives prisoners of war rather than slaves, as the pretext for the Palma raid was a "war" between Tunis and the Kingdoms of Sardinia and Sicily.

 The bombardment of Algiers, 1816

Exmouth´s diplomacy had appeared to work, with agreement form all parties, only for a group of Sardinian fishermen to be attacked and massacred. Fed up with this, Exmouth returned with an Anglo-Dutch squadron and on August 17th 1816 bombarded Algiers. Following this Algiers and Tunis signed new treaties.

And again slave raiding continued, with another bombardment of Algiers in 1824 by a British fleet under Admiral Sir Harry Neal (it´s amazing there were any buildings still standing by now), but the scourge was only ended for good with the occupation and annexation of Algiers by the French in 1830.

The Tunisian fleet was defeated by the British in 1826 and by the French in 1827, but perhaps because it was technically under Ottoman Turkish protection, the city was not occupied until the French arrived in 1881.

Tripoli had long been, technically, part of the Ottoman empire, but infact was ruled by the descendants of a Janissary rebellion. However in 1835 the Ottomans took back control, and Tripoli was part of the Empire until conquered by the Italians in 1911 during the Italo-Turkish War.

The Curlew and The Panda

The road to promotion in the 1830s may have been to serve in the ships of the line, where you could be seen by Admirals, but for travel and adventure, the little ships were the place to be.

HMS Curlew was a 10 gun wooden sloop launched in 1830. In May 1833 the Curlew called in at Port Antonio on the Portuguese Ilha do Príncipe, off West Africa. There Capt. Trotter was informed of an attack on an American brig, the Mexican, by a Spanish pirate schooner, the Panda, which had seen the crew of the Mexican abandoned at sea in a burning vessel, which they had only just managed to survive. The Spanish captain, who had been identified as "Don" Pedro Gilbert, had reportedly abandoned the crew to their fate with the words "Dead cats don"t mew".

 HMS Curlew, at Rio de Janeiro

Nazareth

This Panda was believed to be in the nearby River Nazareth on the African mainland, and the Curlew set off in pursuit. On the 3rd June she anchored at the mouth of the river, and early the next morning three boats rowed up the river. After three miles they saw the Panda, but they themselves had been seen. Rowing against the current was heavy going and before they could arrive the crew of the Panda had left, and smoke was coming from their ship. Arriving at the Panda the astonished sailors saw the smoke was coming from a trail of cotton and brimstone leading to the magazine, where lay 16 barrels of gunpowder! Fortunately, they managed to put out the fire in time, and took the Panda in the name of the King, sailing it out of the river.

Captain Trotter now wanted the crew. These were now in the town of Nazareth, under the jurisdiction of King Passall, the local chieftain. Actually, he vigorously claimed that they had run off into the bush, but it was pretty clear this was not the case, so Trotter determined to make his message clear. The Curlew was too big to sail to Nazareth, so he sent the Panda back, with a Royal Naval crew. After an ultimatum had expired with no pirates delivered, the Panda fired a warning shot.

Unfortunately, though the crew was Navy, the ship was not. Firing the cannon set off loose powder still on the deck, probably from when the pirate crew had tried to fire the ship before. This time it succeeded, the magazine exploded, three men were killed, with many wounded, including Captain Trotter. Fortunately the water was so shallow that the ship didn`t sink and the wounded could be saved. However, much of the Curlew`s firearms and cutlasses had been lost, as well as members of the crew, and an attack on King Passall was unpractical. Anyway, Trotter learnt from his prisoners that the pirate crew had dispersed, and so he sailed along the African coast hunting them down.

Fernando Po

Fernando Po

After several false leads Trotter was forced to call at the island of Fernando Po, modern day Bioko, where Britain leased two bases for use in anti-slavery patrols. Fernando Po was techniclly Spanish, but in fact run by local chiefteins, whose slave trade Britain had abolished. The Curlew needed supplies, also some of her crew, including Captain Trotter, had come down with fever and needed R&R. Actually this delay was a stroke of luck. An officer Captain Beecroft, had come across 5 Spanish sailors who claimed to be shipwrecked, and he had brought them to Fernando Po to catch a ship from there. Suspecting they might be part of the crew of the Panda, the Governor of Fernando Po, Colonel Nicholls, confronted them with the prisoners already taken, and they were promptly identified. The youngest Spaniard, Jose Perez, turned Kings Evidence, and later he was murdered in Havana by friends of Gilbert.

Cape Lopez
 

It appeared that the slaver captain, Don Pedro Gilbert, was still at Nazareth, but it wasn`t clear how to get him as king Passall could either fight, or melt away into the dense forest. Fortunately a trader, Captain Fatio of the Princess Elizabeth offered his services and a plan was hatched. Thirteen men of the Curlew, under the mate, Mr Matson, embarked the Princess Elizabeth and it sailed for Nazareth, with HMS Curlew following far behind. The plan was for the Elizabeth to moor like any other trader and when the King came aboard to inspect her, as was his custom, he would be seized and held until the Curlew appeared.

Something about the Elizabeth struck the locals as wrong, and they inspected her by canoe, but would not come aboard. Matson determined that he would have no choice but to go on land, however risky that turned out to be, so with 4 crew he took a row boat and went to Nazareth, only to be told that the King was now at Cape Lopez, 20 miles upstream. Rowing almost all night, Matson and his crew arrived around dawn.

 Cape Lopez

Unfortunately, almost the first person they met shore was "a gentlemanly looking man with a sword by his side", none other than Don Pedro Gilbert himself, who was immediately very suspicious that Matson was the trader he claimed to be. But unaware of this, Matson continued on to the Kings residence where he announced that he and his crew had come to trade for ivory, and they had many dollars to spend. The meeting went well and Passall was won over, even after a messenger came to inform him of Pedro`s suspicions. Walking back to the beach Matson was accosted by Pedro and a group of Spanish sailors and asked to a nearby house for questioning - he considered bolting for the row boat but held his nerve and somehow managed to appear convincing, or at least enough for Pedro to let him go. Matson and the others returned to the Princess Elizabeth with a pilot to direct the ship to Cape Lopes and one of Passalls younger sons, to find that Captain Fatio had almost given up hope of seeing them again. The two natives were plied with as much drink as they wanted, so when the Curlew appeared in the night they slept through the meeting, and had no clue the next morning that the two ships were connected.

The next morning both ships arrived at Cape Lopez, but separately, the Curlew flying the Brazilian flag. The King was on a Portuguese ship in the harbour, but his son Prince Nazeen and several head men boarded and were promptly seized, though well treated, and assured they would be released as soon as the Spanish were given up.

There now followed a day of haggling, and probably many threats from Don Pedro, but eventually a message was sent, and next morning Don Pedro was send to walk along the beach where, sword in hand, he was met by Captain Trotter and taken into custody. Meanwhile, predictably, Passalls men looted the Spaniard's stores in Cape Lopez. The prisoners were released, with gifts and even a full Naval uniform for Nazeen.

Sao Tome (St Thomas)

It had become clear for some time that the Esperanza was extremely suspicious, and this was confirmed by documents seized with Don Pedro. In fact she had been seen earlier at the Portuguese island of St Thomas, though the Governor there had sworn she was innocent of wrong doing. Trotter now sailed with all speed back to St Thomas, hoping to catch her there, accompanied by the Princess Elizabeth who could sart her normal trade again.

On October 4th 1833 the Curlew was back at St Thomas, anchoring at the port of St Ana de Chaves. The Esperanza had gone, but they were tipped off by an American merchant that some of the Spanish pirates had stayed, and infact had bought a boat from the Governor himself, despite his official claim that they had never been on the island at all! Another American, Captain Pollard of the Henry Hill, told him that the Esperanza was in fact moored on the far side of the island, waiting for the Spaniards to cross the island and join her. Matson was promptly dispatched with a crew in row boats and they captured the Esperanza just after dark, bringing her back to St Ana de Chaves.

The Governor now changed his tune, claiming that he had been hunting for the Spaniards, and had word that they were on a distant part of the island. With no way of forcing the issue Trotter had to be content with seizing the Esperanza, and the ex-ship of the Governor, and sailing for the neighbouring Portuguese island of Principe.

Cape Lopez again

Trotter now had most of the crew of the Panda, including the officers, but in January 1834 he received news that one of the pirates was still at Cape Lopez. The Curlew had been back since, and been recieved well, so they didn't anticipate trouble, but when Matson went ashore with a small party he was seized, as was Lt McNeale and a group of sailors who were searching a Portuguese ship in the harbour.The prisoners were stripped naked, apart from Matson who had a degree of protection from his friend Prince Nashin. They were questioned about how many people remained aboard and Matson invented the huge number of 125, which he later believed was what dissuaded an outright attack on the Curlew.

It was unclear even afterwards what had prompted this sudden hostility by Passall, other that the fact he was extremely drunk at the time. In any event he now demanded 3000 dollars ransom for the hostages. When this was brought down to 100 dollars it was paid, only for Passall to demand another 300 and several more days passed. Fortunately at this point the HMS Fair Rosamund, another sloop, arrived, and Passall send the hostages back.

Clearly this could not be tolerated and another sloop, HMS Trinculo, was summoned. The water was too shallow to approach Cape Lopez directly but the combined boats for the squadron were loaded with sailors, and also a 12 pounder cannon and some rockets , and sent in. The rockets drove Passalls forces out of the town, but they assembled in large numbers in the forest and a plan to burn the town was abandoned.

Aftermath

The Curlew and the captured Esperanza returned to Ascension island, and then England, the Esperanza being eventually handed over to the Portuguese authorities in Lisbon, and entered the Portuguese navy. The Spanish pirate prisoners were sent to be tried in Massachusetts for their part in the seizure of the Mexican. They were carried on HMS Savage, the first time in 50 years that a British warship had entered Salem harbour, which naturally caused great excitement. By chance the Mexican, with her original captain and mate were in harbour, and of course were called as witnesses. It was a cause celeb, with even the President being involved, but finally most of the prisoners, including Don Pedro, were hanged.

 A contempory print of de Soto and Gilbert. Gilbert was noted for his "gentlemanly aspect" and seemed to be always carrying a sword. The crew of the Panda were noted at the time for having red caps.

Trotter went on to command the Niger Expedition in 1841, and by 1857 he was a Commodaore, commanding the newly established Cape of Good Hope squadron based in Simonstown. 

Matson was to visit Havana again, two and ten years after the trial, and on both occasions he met up with the former Chief Mate of the Panda, Bernardo De Soto, who had been pardoned. Matson was a captain in the Royal Navy, and De Soto a well established and respectable trader

"The world had gone well with him since his trial, and he was now undoubtedly a reformed character. He never looked like a pirate, he had a benevolent expression of countenance, and was particularly mild and gentlemanly in his manners. During ten years he had commanded a large steamer, running between Havana and Matanzas, and latterly had become part owner. He told me he had made a considerable sum of money, but had never been engaged in the slave trade since his liberation. This was strictly true, for I heard it, confirmed from other sources. He was then moving in a very respectable sphere at Havana, and was known generally as "Don Bernardo."

Further Reading

The full story of the Curlew and the Panda can be found in The Nautical Magazine, volumne 20 (1851), in Google books.

Onega & Back Part 3 - Action on the Lake 1919

When you join the navy you probably don't expect to find yourself in the middle of a lake in Russia, but in early 1919 that's exactly where a small Royal Navy flotilla were. Admittedly Lake Onega is enormous, the 2nd largest in Europe, but they had still had to get there by rail, from Murmansk. In fact even then a path had to be cut through the forest to even reach the lake shore. Fortunately, a party of American railroad engineers was available to do the job, and a naval base of two American (40ft)  and 11 British small (55ft) "coastal motor boats" (CMBs) was set upon the lake. Unfortunately, the Americans were withdrawn by their government, handing over one of their boats to the Royal Navy, who promptly christened it the Jolly Roger!

 To understand why Lake Onega was so important you have to appreciate that the only route from St Petersburg (Petrograd) through dense forest to the Allied/White base at Murmansk was the Murmansk Railway, and the only population in this area was in the villages around the lake. Control the lake, and the railway, and you controlled the whole area.

The Royal Navy on Lake Onega

Initially it was far from clear that the British would control anything on the lake. Their flotilla of small launches was drawfed by the Bolshevik fleet, which in February 1919 stood at 4 medium size lake steamers, 4 floating batteries and 2 minelayers, armed with a mixture of 75,mm, 47mm, and 35mm guns and machine guns. They also had 2 Grigorovich M-9 seaplanes, although as we will see later, the British had plans of their own in this regard.

 A view of Lake Onega in 1915, including a view of one of the lake steamers (Library of Congress)

The British flotilla was commanded by Lt Commander Mather, a former Antarctic exploder, who from the start decided the best form of attack was defence, mounting raids all over the lake, and increasing his fleet at the expense of the Bolsheviks.

Early in June, the four armed Bolshevik lake steamers were observed steaming on Lake Onega northwest towards Medvyejya. Mather, in command of a flotilla of CMBs, engaged the enemy and for this action he was later awarded the Distinguished Service Order (DSO). The citation reads:

"For conspicuous gallantry and devotion to duty, on the 5 June 1919, before Shunski Bor, Lake Onega, when in command of four motor boats he engaged four enemy steamers, carrying many heavy guns, in order to relieve the Russians who were being heavily attacked. Notwithstanding the disparity in armament he caused the enemy vessels to retire south, and so enabled the Russians to counter-attack with success. He showed throughout great courage and devotion to duty and set a fine example to all".

The "Jolly Roger" with it's 3 pdr gun was kept busy bombarding Bolsehvik positions on the shoreline, such as on June 10th when it attacked the village of Fedotova on the Shunga peninsula destroying a bridge and killing 30 Bolsheviks. Unfortunately, on July 8th a fire in the engine room exploded the petrol tank and the ship was lost.

 The "Jolly Roger"

Better news came on August 3rd when three of the four Bolshevik steamers were captured, 'Silny", 'Pajalostny" and "Azod' off Tolvuya, Lake Onega. With a decent troop carrying capacity Mather got even more ambitious.

The Raid on Rimskaya

On August 29th a major raid was launched on Rimskaya, 80 miles from Medveja Gora and the Bolshevik headquarters on the eastern side of Lake Onega. The raiding force would consist of 130 Russians, 25 Serbians, and 60 men of the British naval flotilla, all carried in a small fleet consisting  of the Sileny (a captured Bolshevik steamer), the Axod (a captured Bolshevik tug), the Royal Navy motor boats and various small Russian chasers.

 A view, reportedly, of the jetty at Rimskaya during the action

The Axod was first alongside the landing stage, a British officer leaping of the bows and leading his men to occupy the buildings and wood piles by the jetty. The Bolshevik outpost there was overcome after a short fire fight, and the site secured for the landings. The prisoners taken on the jetty incidentally were found to have been from a White battalion in Archangel that had mutinied and shot their British officers - they were handed over to the White authorities.

One of the first ashore was Boson C.H. Mitchell, who won the Military Cross. His, and other, reports in the London Gazette are given below.....

"This Chief Petty Officer showed great gallantry and devotion to duty during the attack on the village of Rimskaya on 29th August, 1919. He was one of the first to enter the village, personally took twelve of the enemy prisoners and captured one machine gun, which had been delaying the advance. He set a magnificent example of gallantry and coolness."

Eighteen enemy tried to make a stand in woodland around the pier, but were broken up by Able Seaman Logan, an American from New York serving in the Mercantile Marine Reserve.

"On 29th August, 1919, at Rimskaya on Lake Onega, this rating, showed great resource, courage and initiative on the occasion of landing. Together with another man he captured eighteen prisoners who were taking cover in the woods round the pier and who would have held up the advance of the Allied landing party."

 A site on the lake,  probably not Rimskaya, showing the typical buildings and log piles (Library of Congress)

Troops fanned out into the village - one house, unusually, has a horse tied up outside. As the British approached a Red Commissar broke cover and tried to escape, but was captured.

Fire fights broke out all over the village as the Bolsheviks tried to set up machine gun posts. Motorman H. Barker, from Penge, won a Military Cross for overcoming one of these..

"On 29th August, 1919, at Rimskaya, this rating displayed conspicuous zeal and gallantry on the occasion of the storming of the village. Coming under a heavy machinegun cross fire he persevered and then became mainly responsible for the capture of thirty-one prisoners."

The raiders had machine guns of their own, more skilfully handled. Able Seaman J. Buss, from Camberwell, won a bar to the Distinguished Conduct Medal he already possessed, for his part in the battle...

"For conspicuous gallantry and devotion to duty at Rimskaya, on 29th August, 1919, when he advanced with his machine gain under (heavy fine, and' by skillful handling of the same was largely responsible for the capture of 30 prisoners by his section.".

Buss in fact was not a sailor at all, but an ex-Sergeant in the London Regiment, who had won his Distinguished Conduct Medal the previous year.

Another 30 prisoners were also captured by Lt. Walter Wood, who won a Military Cross. All in all 150 prisoners were taken and the operation was a huge success. And meanwhile the RAF had also been in action over the lake, but that's another blog.

The Jet Propelled Ironclad

The 1860s were a time of great experimentation in ship design, perhaps nowhere more so than with HMS Waterwtich. Most modern warships of the time used steam power to drive a single screw propeller. The Waterwitch didn't have any propeller at all, she was jet powered.

The Waterwitch's two steam engines powered a huge 19ft, 8 ton, rotary pump, which sucked water through valves in the bottom of the boat, and forced it out through adjustable nozzles, pushing the ship along. She wasn't a toy either, she displaced 1,200 tons, and had a crew of 80, many of whom were working her 6 furnaces. It has to be said that she also had a full set of very traditional barquetine rigged sails.

But she worked, the Waterwitch not only moved, but in fact was highly manoeuvrable. The biggest concern was that she didn´t move very fast, only 9 knots as most, when HMS Warrior, for example, could reach 14.5 knots. This was in part due to the inefficiency of the process, only a quarter to a third of the engine power transferred to propelling the vessel according to the engineering press of the time, if it had been 100% she would have whizzed along at 24 knots. There was also the question of the huge amount of space the machinery took up in the hull compared to a screw driven ship.

In the Waterwitch's defence it should be said that she was intended as a gunboat, not an oceangoing battleship, and it was here that her advantages would be most evident. The idea was firstly that she would be extremely manoeuvrable, simply changing the direction of the water jets pivoting her around. But secondly, she could also operate in very shallow water, far more so than any propeller driven ship. Infact she could apparently dig herself into, and out of, sand banks, or so it was claimed. The water jets could be directed forwards or backwards, and there were rudders at either end.

There was also the question of armour - in the debate of speed vs protection, British gunboat doctrine tended to the former, whilst HMS Waterwitch was very much of the latter, with an armoured central casement in the middle 60 feet of her 162 ft length, protected by 4.5 inches of armour and 10 inches of teak. This central box had gun ports in front and back as well as each side for her 2x 7 inch muzzle loading, and 2x 20 pounder breech loading guns.

The Waterwitch could therefore navigate in waters normally inaccessible to warships, attacking areas previously considered invulnerable, and bypassing defences, She could also direct her fire in the most opportune manner available. Whatever the reason, jet propulsion wasn't considered worth pursuing, but maybe HMS Waterwitch was ahead of her time. The Finns and Israelis both now operate patrol boats using a similar process.

The Largest Battle of the American Revolution

Was this Saratoga? Yorktown? No, it was the siege of Gibraltar, empathising how world wide this conflict really was.

The Siege

Gibraltar ("The Rock") had been ceded to Britain in the Treaty of Utrecht in 1713, ""for ever, without any exception or impediment whatsoever", but Spain had been trying to renege on the treaty ever since. In 1779, with Britain alone against Spain, France, Holland and revolting American colonists, the opportunity seemed to there for the taking.

Spain laid siege with 13,000 men under Martín Álvarez de Sotomayor, including two battalions each of Royal Guards and Walloon Guards of the Spanish army, whilst the cavalry included French Dragoons. There was also a blockade on the seaward side, based at Algiciras, and another Spanish squadron at Cadiz to block reinforcements.

The British, under Governor General Elliot, had 5,382 troops including a Corsican contingent and a Hanoverian Brigade of three battalions. Fortunately, Elliot turned out to be an inspiring and determined leader. And a conscientious one, he had been laying in stores and preparing defences for some time.

The Defences

The only landward route to Gibraltar was, and is, across a narrow isthmus. Every effort had been made to cover this with as many cannon as possible. Directly across the causeway was a wall and dry ditch with two bastions, mounting 26 guns. Flanking this, and the causeway itself were the King's, Queen's, and Prince's lines cut out of the rock itself. Above were the Willis batteries, and then further batteries up the Rock until the summit, which was crowned with cannon and mortars. The Mole, projecting out past the harbour, was itself fortified and gave a crossfire onto the causeway. There was so much artillery that 100 British infantry were detailed to help man the cannons. The whole was so formidable that it was called the Mouth of Fire by the Spanish. The seaward side was equally covered with bastions and cannon from sea level to the summit, with barriers of old masts and chains blocking the old and new landing stages. Only the Eastern flank, which is a sheer drop into the sea, was unfortified and left to the famous Gibraltar apes. Last, but not least, a huge cistern had been made to collect rain water, so that at no point in the siege was there a shortage of water.

The Spanish troops constructed huge siege works around Gibraltar, and the blockade started to bite. By the winter Gibraltar, with virtually no room to grow food, was starting to suffer. Scurvy, caused by a shortage of fresh vegetables, was common and ships had to be broken up to get firewood. What saved Gibraltar was the Battle of Cape Vincent in January 1780, A massive British convoy under Admiral Rodney not only smashed through the Spanish blocking force at Cadiz, but captured or destroyed 4 ships of the line, including the Spanish flagship. This, the supplies landed, and reinforcement with the 73rd Highlanders gave a huge boost to the garrison morale. The presence of Prince William, son of the King, in the fleet also showed commitment from Britain, and that the garrison was not forgotten.

 The Battle of Cape St. Vincent

Running the Blockade

By the summer of 1780 food was running low again, but blockade runners kept them going. Every effort was made to bring in fresh fruit from Africa to hold off scurvy.

Admiralty-Office, September. 18, 1781.
Extract of a Letter from Captain Curtis dated Brilliant, Gibraltar, August 7.
I beg Leave to acquaint My Lords Commissioners that His Majesty's Sloop Helena arrived here this Morning. Her Approach was discovered by the Enemy and us at the same Time, about Five o'Clock. She was in the Gut to the Southward of Cabarita Point, and nearly a Third of the Way over from it towards Europa. It was perfectly calm, and the Helena was rowing for the Rock.

I immediately took the Repulse and Vanguard Gun-Boats, with all the Boats of the Ships; and went for her, as expeditiously as possible. Fourteen Gun-Boats of the Enemy, carrying each One Twenty-six Pounder in the Bow,, moved also from Algaziras, accompanied by several Launcbes. These Boats got on faster than I could proceed with the Repulse and Vanguard, and before Eight o'Clock those of them the most advanced commenced their Fire upon the Helena, being then within Half Gun-shot. She returned it with great Deliberation and Effect, but still continuing to use her Oars. The greater Part of the Gun-Boats were soon close to her, and the Clouds of Grape and other Shot, that seemed almost to bury her were really astonishing. However she could not, without our Aid, bear long this very unequal Combat. The Repulse and Vanguard began a well-directed Fire upon the Enemy, being so placed as was deemed the most efficacious to cover the Helena, and annoy them. 

The commencement of the Sea Breeze having got to the Helena she soon reached us, the Enemy still persevering on their attempt upon her, firing at her broadside and others keeping astern, raking her. However the Steadiness and Bravery exhibited onboad the Helena, and the well appointed Grape from the Repluse and Vanguard, very soon made some of them retire, and they had all fled by ten o Clock, allowing us to tow the Helena into the Mole without further molestation. A Xebec, mounting between twenty and thirty guns, which was lying near to Cabarita Point, got under way when the Breeze came and advanced to join the Gun Boats, but upon seeing them retire she retired also.

The Masts, Sails, Rigging and Furniture of the Helena are cut all to Pieces, and the Hull a good deal damaged, but it is as wonderful as it is fortunate that the Boatswain was the only man who was killed on board her.  The Bravery, the Coolness, and the Judicious Conduct of Captain Roberts do him infinite Honour and His Officers and Men deserve the highest Commendation.
London Gazette

On 7th June the Spanish sent a fire ship into the harbour. This nearly worked, but the garrison was alerted and at 1am woke to see Gibraltar blood red against the dark night. Cannonades drove off the Spanish boats, and English boats rowed out, hooked the burning vessel, and towed it away. Even then the danger was not over, two more fireships were approaching and almost reaching the pier, but they were fended off just in time. The hulks were later salvaged by the British and used, ironically, as firewood

Yet again food started to run out, especially as supplies from North Africa had been cut, but another convoy arrived in April 1781, and this convoy evacuated all civilians from the Rock.

The Sortie and the Grand Bombardment

It was now clear to the Spanish and French that the British could not be starved out. So in November they assembled ready to storm the defences. the British response took them entirely by surprise. The night before the assault was due fully half the garrison silently left Gibraltar and then flung themselves on the siege lines. It was a dramatic success, batteries were set on fire, cannon spiked and troops routed. Over two million pounds worth of Spanish stores and equipment, an immense sum for the time, was destroyed. the assault had to be cancelled.

 Watching the destruction of the Spanish floating batteries from The Rock

But still the Spanish and French persisted. Eventually, on 13 September 1782, nearly three years after the siege started, they started their assault. The plan was to smash Gibraltar´s defences "into powder" and then storm it with 35,000 Spanish and French troops. A fleet of 18 ships of the line, 40 gunboats and 20 bomb vessels surrounded the Rock, as well ten "floating batteries" with 138 heavy guns. These were immense, with guns only on one side, counterbalanced with lead. The cannon side had extra protection, and a roof was made of planks and iron sheets. They were, in a way, the first Ironclads. On the landward side there were 86 more guns. Over 80,000 spectators gathered to watch the show - they were disappointed. The British batteries, with higher elevation, and therefore range, fired red hot shot at the wooden floating batteries, exploding three and damaging the rest. They also damaged the ships so much that they caused 719 casualties. Demoralised, the allies withdrew.

This was the last major assault. In October another large British convoy appeared, 31 transports with supplies and the 25th, 59th and 79th regiments. The siege continued but in February 1783 a peace treaty was signed. Although the British bargaining position was weak the Spanish didn´t press for Gibraltar, gaining instead Minorca and territory in the Americas. Presumably they assumed Gibraltar could be picked off at a later date. It wasn´t.

Gibraltar of the West - Bermuda in the 1860s

After losing the southern American colonies in the American Revolution, Britain started developing Bermuda as a naval base.The other alternative was Halifax in Nova Scotia, which had an excellent harbour. - but one significant disadvantage, it could be reached overland from the United States. Nonetheless, until 1868 Bermuda was part of the Nova Scotia command, for much of that time more or less an outpost of Halifax. For the Navy this had the advantage that ships could be rotated between the two, Halifax being regarded as much healthier. In the same way, ships were often sent north to Bermuda from the Caribbean when there was sickness in the crew. Even then, disease was often a problem. In 1868 an outbreak of fever and diarrhoea struck the Bermuda garrison - out of 3,519 men 1,665 were admitted to hospital. The official report at the time stated...
"This outbreak of fever was attributed by the Principal Medical Officer "to the "effects of a sudden change from the cold bracing climate of New Brunswick "to the hot relaxing climate of Bermuda." The exemption of the Royal Artillery from fever is attributed to their having previously served at Gibraltar, and thus being more inured to the heat, and to their duties being lighter than those of the other troops."

The population of Bermuda was also unaffected. At least the scale of the outbreak led to many improvements in conditions at the barracks, as well as recommendations that troops arrive during the autumn so that they can acclimatise slowly.

Bermuda and the American Civil War

    Bermuda´s military value had been amply demonstrated during the war of 1812, when privateers from Bermuda captured 298 American ships, and Bermuda was a staging post for amphibious operations such as the capture of Washington. Very much the same considerations were voiced by Sir Alexander Milne, the commander of the North American and West Indian Squadron during the American Civil War,

 "If Bermuda were in the hands of any other nation,the base of our operations would be removed to the two extremes, Halifax and Jamaica, and the loss of this island as a Naval Establishment would be a National misfortune."

HMS Challenger in Bermuda 1865. Like many of the Victorian steam corvettes she had a story to tell. In 1862 she had been part of the force that occupied Vera Cruz in Mexico, whilst in 66 and 68 she was in action in Fiji. But her contribution to history is as the worlds first oceanographic ship on the Challenger Expedition. The Space Shuttle Challenger was named after her.

Thus Bermuda was essential during the War between the States as a projection of the British navy, but it was also greatly valued by the Confederates as a "neutral" port, where they could trade war supplies, or even just stock up on coal. The Globe Hotel was so established as a centre for Confederate agents there is a museum commemorating this there today. For example, in March 1862 the SS Bermuda passed through with a cargo of guns and ammunition, whilst on 3 April 1863 the steamer General Beauregard with a cargo of "Enfield rifles, 1 field battery of guns complete, 500 bags saltpetre, blankets etc was in the harbour. The prosperity generated made the Confederacy very popular amongst Bermudan traders, and there was a large community from the Southern States.

 The USS Sonoma & Tioga off Bermuda

Conversely, the United States were far from popular. Not least after the actions of Commander Charles Wilkes, who seems to have been almost determined to cause a war. In command of a small squadron, the Wachusett, Sonoma and Tioga , he sailed into St Georges harbour, and not only refused to leave for a week but ordrered the two gun boats in his squadron to blockade the harbour, even firing on a Royal Mail cutter, the Merlin. It was Wilkes who later cuased the "Trent Affair" by stopping and boarding the British mail packet Trent and seizing two Confederate commissioners aboard.

The Dockyard

 

 HMS Vixen, an armoured gunboat, in Bermuda dockyard.

    Bermudas´s location was militarily perfect, but there were  disadvantages. For a start, there were not many deep water channels suitable, although eventually a suitable site was found on Ireland Island, on the extreme western tip of Bermuda. Unfortunately, the main settlement was St. Georges, at the eastern end of the island, whilst the official capital, government buildings and garrison headquarters were at Hamilton, in the centre. Nonetheless by 1864 the Duke of Somerset could report that.....

    "During the last twenty years much has been done to render Bermuda an important naval Station, more especially while Rear-Admiral Hutton was Superintendent. The old floating depots for provisions, naval stores, &c. have been abandoned, and a fine dock and victualling yard have been built with a basin of more than sixteen acres, and a jetty for coaling ships, at a cost of about £112,000: the construction of a first-class dock would complete the establishment. Bermuda lies in a central position, which is the key to the North American United States in case of war: it is a convenient distance from Halifax to vessels which might be injured in the Gulf Stream, and it is convenient also with regard to the West India Islands. Engineers have, however, contended that there are natural difficulties which are insurmountable, "owing," as one of them says, "to the ground being so porous and uncertain. You may go through a solid piece of rock, five, six, or ten feet, and you may come into a cavern connected with the ocean sixty or seventy feet deep: the openings in the rock are something very extraordinary. In Bermuda there are caves which will astonish you: the connexion between the rock and the sea is surprising : you cannot go fifty feet without getting to something which would upset your arrangements."
    United Service magazine 1864

    This porous rock was a problem. Maintenance of a fleet "on station" required a dry dock, but the nature of the rock made this impossible. The ingenious, but hugely expensive, alternative, was to make a floating dock, in England, and float it down to Bermuda.

    By 1869 though it could be reported that
    "The floating dock at Bermuda which was launched last year, and is so far successful, is paid for, having cost altogether about .£300,000. It is a most ingenious construction, and 18 well worth the money spent upon it It will be most useful, as it is much better to repair ships at Bermuda, if possible, instead of sending them home."
    Colburns United Services Magazine 1869

 The floating dock arriving at Bermuda

    The dock was towed to Madeira, where HMS Warrior and HMS Black Prince took over and continued the voyage to Bermuda, with the paddle frigate HMS Terrible lashed astern to act as a rudder, the voyage lasting 39 days. This was partly because of the sheer power needed to tow the dock, but it also sent a message that Britain had bigger and better ironclands than the United Staes, and was committed to defending her American and Atlantic territories.

Defences

    All of this made Bermuda an obvious target for attack, and from the 1850s to 1860s fortifications were substantially upgraded, and the garrison increased. Given that since the 1840s a string of American government spies had been making reports on the islands defences, and how they might be overcome, the concern was probably warrented. The main centres were;

a) St Georges garrison
The original, on the Eastern side of the island.

b) The dockyard garrison
Protecting the Naval dockyard, with ranges for training of marines.

 The barracks on Ireland Island, 1848

c) Prospect camp
By 1860 this was the site of the main garrison on the island, with barracks, training areas and a fort, Fort Prospect, manned by the Royal Garrison Artillery. As well as Fort Prospect there were two other forts, Fort Hamilton and Fort Langton, sited to give overlapping fire. Fort Hamilton, completed in the 1870s, was on a site of 10 acres and carried 18 guns and was surrounded by a moat.

In fact Bermuda was dotted with fortifications.

 In the East, at St Georges, there was Fort St Catherine, the largest on the island. like much of the defences, expanded and upgraded during the 1860s. Designed to cooperate with St Catherine were Fort Victoria, whose 18x 32 pound cannon commanded the approaches to the dockyard, and Fort Albert, built in 1840, a moated pentagon redoubt with 4 heavy guns, two eight inch howitzers and two ten inch mortars. In 1865 the heavy guns of Fort Albert were replaced with modern ten inch rifled muzzle loaders.

At the dockyard end of the island  there was Fort Scaur, sited to prevent attack on the docks from the landward side, with a dry moat and "disappearing carriages". These were pulled back out of sight of the enemy for reloading, and the whole fort was designed to present a miminal target to the enemy.

    There was a martello tower at Ferry Reach, with a garrison of 24 men and one officer and two ammunition stores, one on Ordinance Island (!), connected by a causeway to the main island, and one at East Broadway, near Hamilton.

During this period the number of troops had also been increased substantially, and by 1865 there were over 6,000 troops on the island. Regiments included, at various times,  the 2nd battalion of the 2nd Queens Regiment, and the 15th, 30th and 61st Regiments.

Bermuda continues to be a British Overseas Territory today, although, ironically, it was an important base for American units during WW2.

Interdiction off the Brazilian coast in the 1840s

If active service for the Army of the 1840s meant India, for the Navy it meant the Slave Trade, patroling West Africa, the Caribbean and the Brazilian coast and attempting to apprehend slave traders. This was a job for fast small ships, not the battle fleet.

Of course, cruising the open ocean looking for slavers was a waste of time, the patrols were off the African and Brazilian coasts. Technically Brazil had banned the trade in slaves, but as this article by Commader Foote R.N. in the United Services Journal of 1845 shows, that wasn't quite the case.

 A slave market in Rio

A FEW REMARKS ON THE SLAVE-TRADE IN THE BRAZILS.

When we see slave-vessels fitting out in every port of the empire of Brazils, from Para to St. Catherine's, openly protected by the authorities; when we see slaves landed and sold within a few miles of the Emperor's palace at Rio de Janeiro, and the vessel, after discharging her cargo, fearlessly enters the harbour, triumphing in her success; whilst the authorities refuse, and British cruisers are unable to interfere, being once within three miles of their coast, it will be perceived how utterly useless it is to trust to the good faith or co-operation of the Brazilians in such a matter.

Not more than two or three years ago, a boat belonging to H.M.S. Clio ( a brig sloop carrying 71 men and 18 guns).was attacked on the coast of the province of Esperito Santo, when in possession of a slave-vessel, having more than three hundred Africans on board, by a great number of large boats and canoes full of men, who re-captured and burnt the vessel, having landed all the Negroes.

This attack was made in the presence, if not by the direction, of the Juiz de Paz of the district. The boat, obliged to retreat, in want of water, and unable to reach the Clio, put into the port of Campos (about forty miles distant); she went in with her ensign and pendant flying, and the officer (a Lieutenant) proceeded on shore, with his side arms, to purchase refreshments, when, to his surprise, he and the whole of his crew, consisting of a Midshipman and thirteen men, were seized, and thrust into one common prison, where they could with great difficulty procure the common necessaries of life. The authorities then caused the English colours to be hauled down on board the boat, and took possession of her. The officers and crew remained several days in prison, until the Clio arrived off the port, where, being unable to enter, from the shallowness of the water, she threatened a blockade; and they were released.


A boat, belonging to H.M.S. Rose (18-gun sloop), having captured a vessel with 280 Africans on board, and sent her to Rio Janeiro, again resumed her cruising ground. The officer and crew landed one morning to cook their breakfast on the rocks, when they found themselves suddenly surrounded by a great number of men on horseback, all armed, who made them prisoners (the boat's crew having, by order, left their arms in their boat), and conducted them on foot to the town of Campos, a distance of about fifteen miles, where they were, in a similar manner to the Clio's boat's crew, lodged in prison. The cause for this sudden and unwarrantable behaviour was the appearance of a slaver in the offing, and the Rose's boat was actually employed by the slave-dealers in embarking the Negroes from this newly-arrived vessel, which being accomplished, she ran into Campos, whither also the boat was conducted. The Commander of the Rose having become acquainted with the fate of his boat and crew, detained several coasting vessels at the mouth of the Campos river, and sent an officer to demand the immediate restoration of his men; they were in consequence given up. No satisfaction whatever has been offered for this outrage. The Juiz de Paz still retains his office, still continues to receive the usual bribes for the disembarkation of Negroes, and still continues to animate the ignorant country people by whom he is surrounded against the English pirates!


The slave-dealers, secretly applauded by the Government, and encouraged by these successful attempts to insult the British flag, now armed themselves at the different slave stations, and came to the determination of firing into any boat which took refuge in their ports or creeks, or even approached the coast within musket-shot. An opportunity soon presented itself. A boat, belonging to H.M.'s sloop Fantome (16-gun Acorn-class brig-sloop) anchored one evening in a little creek at the Ilha Grande, for protection from the wind and sea; a few men came down to the rocks, and asked if they were English. The officer in charge of the boat answered in the affirmative, and pointed to the colours which were flying. At peep of day on the following morning they were awakened by a volley of small arms, and several balls passed through the hull of the boat; but as the men were fortunately lying down at the time, two only were wounded, one receiving a shot through his hand, and the side of another being grazed. One of the same men who came down to the rocks on the previous evening was distinctly recognised, with about twenty or thirty others (mulattoes and blacks), all armed with muskets. The officer s first impulse was to slip the cable and dash at them, and the men in the boat were most eager to do so, as the people on shore were concealed behind the rocks, and were firing whenever they could get their old broken-down muskets to go off; but he (the officer) had received positive orders not to land on any account whatever; and he consequently retired, trusting that a proper representation of the case would be sufficient to procure instant redress; but the only satisfaction the British Minister ever received was the empty assurance of the Brazilian Government that they had caused an inquiry to be instituted, and that the man who had authorised and headed the attack had fled from the island, and could not be found, although he was seen and recognised by the same officer not six weeks after the occurrence.


At Santos, a seaport in the province of St. Paul's, the slave-trade is carried on with greater vigour and less secrecy than in any other part of the Brazils. It was in this port that Captain Willis, of the Frolic, and his officers, were waylaid, and nearly murdered, and slave-vessels are here fitted out with every necessary equipment, which is taken on board in the open day; they sail with no cargo, with the exception of slave-provisions and water, and it is so arranged that they shall not wait more than six hours on the coast of Africa, the slaves having been previously collected and prepared for instant embarkation.


One of the most notorious and iniquitous traffickers in human flesh the world ever produced, is named Jose Bernardino de Sa; this wretch has carried on the slave-trade for a number of years, and has risen from a bankrupt petty coffee-merchant to immense wealth, and is decorated with orders. Vessels of every size and rig are employed in his service, on either side of the coast of Africa, in prosecution of this revolting traffic; and it is calculated that within the three years ending in 1843, he has imported no less than sixteen thousand Africans into the Brazils; yet this "Knight of the Order of Christ" promenades the salons of St. Christovao, mingles with the Ministers of the Sovereigns of civilized Europe, and possesses such influence over the Ministers of his own country, that none dare oppose him in his loathsome undertakings.

Jose Bernardino de Sa as well as owning a fleet of ships also owned a slave trading post at Cape Lopes in Africa. He died in 1855, with the title of Visconde da Vila Nova do Minho.

The British view of the Baltic, 1919. Part 2.

June 1919 found Admiral Cowan´s First Light Cruiser Squadron of the Royal Navy based at Bjorko harbour in Finland, monitoring the Bolshevik fleet bottled up in Kronstadt. The aim was to stop it intervening in the newly independent Baltic states, or even in the German Revolution raging at the time. However, there was something of a stalemate, as Kronstadt harbour was well protected by minefields and forts covering the entrance. There was also a danger from German units to the south, supposedly there to oppose the Bolsheviks, but suspected of having an agenda of their own.

 Some of the crew of HMS Caledon

Admiral Cowan´s report, as printed in the London Gazette continues as follows.....

30. It was evident by then that the Bolshevik Active Squadron consisted of:  ...
2 Battleships. (1 Dreadnought " Petropavlovsk"), 1 Cruiser, "Oleg" and 6 Large Destroyers.
31. Up to about the end of June there were constant attempts by Enemy Light Craft to break out on the Northern side at night, and both to sweep and lay mines - and a good deal of shooting, though little hitting, went on between the Patrols - also, there is no doubt more mines were laid by the Bolsheviks, to the Southward of Stirs Point, and to the Eastward of the existing Mine Barrier.

32. On the 13th June very heavy firing broke out between Fort Krasnaya Gorka and the fort and ships at Kronstadt - Fort Krasnaya Gorka having suddenly turned over to the "Whites", who, however, were not strong enough to hold it - the forces immediately available being only a hundred or so of badly-armed and much-exhausted Ingermanlanders, who, owing to the fire from the Bolshevik Heavy Ships, were unable to occupy the Fort long enough either to effectively man the guns, or destroy them - and so, after changing hands twice, Krasnaya Gorka remained in Bolshevik hands.
33. These Ingermanlanders were fighting under the direction of the Estonian Command, and were armed and equipped by them, chiefly from supplies captured from Bolsheviks, and had done very well ever since these operations started, and were fighting with the more enthusiasm as it was their own country they were freeing.
Apparently, however, their successes aroused the suspicion and jealousy of the Russians of the Northern Corps, who, equipped and supported in every way by the Esthonians, had by then begun to become a considerable fighting force, and were holding the line on the right of the Estonian-Ingermanland Force - whose left flank rested on the sea, and had pushed forward as far as Krasnaya Gorka.

34. In order to deal with any attempt by heavy ships to break out - as well as to maintain an effective patrol on the entrance to Petrograd Bay, I considered it advisable to lay mines so as to restrict the movements of the enemy, and this was done by"'Princess Margaret" (Captain Harry H. Smyth, C.M.G.,D.S.O.) and the 20th Destroyer Flotilla (Captain Berwick Curtis, C.B., D.S.O.).
35. On 17th June our lookouts reported a Cruiser ("Oleg") and two Destroyers left anchor West of Kronstadt, and also a Submarine moving Westward.
36. A few minutes after midnight a sudden burst of firing was heard by our outpost Destroyers, which, as suddenly ceased, and next day Lieutenant Augustine W. Agar, .R.N., informed me that he had torpedoed the Cruiser "Oleg" at anchor, the torpedo hitting her about the foremost funnel, and came under heavy fire from the Destroyers on retiring.
37. On the 6th July "Vindictive" on passage from England to join me in the Gulf of Finland, ran aground outside Reyal on the Middle Ground Shoal, and remained there for eight days. It was a time of some anxiety to me, as she was going fifteen knots at the time of striking, and had slid up half her length, and was in two feet six inches to three feet less water there than her draught, and in a tideless sea. " Delhi" and "Cleopatra" made several ineffectual attempts to tow her off before after lightening her by 2,212 tons, and experiencing a rise of water of about four to six inches due to a Westerly wind, "Cleopatra' at last pulled her clear after eight days of effort and, as we discovered shortly afterwards, all the towing operations were carried out in the middle of a minefield.

 Recovering a plane after a bombing raid

38. Early in July strong attacks were made by the Bolsheviks on the Russian front on the Southerly shore, necessitating frequent bombardments by light Cruisers and destroyers of the Bolshevik positions. Bolshevik aircraft were also active; Fort Krasuaya Gorka also occasionally firing at our patrol in Kaporia Bay.
39. Later in the mouth our Flying Operations started, consisting at first of reconnaissance and photographic flights, and then on the morning of the 30th July a bombing operation against the ships in Kronstadt, the main objective being a Destroyer Depot Ship with five or six Destroyers lying alongside her. The whole was under the command of Squadron Leader David G. Donald, A.F.C., R.A.F.
Sixteen bombs in all were dropped, and one hit, at any rate, was registered on the Depot Ship, which disappeared from her accustomed position in the harbour, and was not seen again. All machines returned safely after passing through a heavy anti-aircraft fire from the ships and batteries defending Kronstadt.
40. Thereafter continued a close watch on Petrograd Bay, with frequent bombardments by us of Bolshevik positions on the Southern Shore, and occasional shellings by Fort Krasnaya Gorka and other guns, varied by attacks by enemy submarines on our vessels, and intermittent activity by Bolshevik Destroyers and Minesweepers, with occasional appearances outside the harbour by larger craft.

41. On the morning of 18th August, with the object of removing, as far as possible, the threat which existed to my ships and also to the Left Flank of the Russian advance to Petrograd by the presence of the Bolshevik Active Squadron, an attack on the ships in Krronstadt by Coastal Motor Boats and Aircraft was made.
42. The position of the ships in the harbour had been ascertained by aerial photographs. Frequent bombing raids on the harbour had also been made at varying times in the weeks beforehand.
43. The attack was planned so that all available aircraft co-operated under Squadron Leader D. G. Donald, A.F.C., R.A.F., and that they should arrive and bomb the harbour so as to drown the noise of the approach of the Coastal Motor Boats.
44. The time-table was most accurately carried out; with, the result that the first three Coastal Motor Boats, under Commander Claude C. Dobson, D.S.O., passed the line of Forts and entered the harbour with scarcely a shot being fired.
45. Each boat had a definite objective - six in all. Of these six enterprises four were achieved, the results being gained not only by dauntless disciplined bravery at the moment of attack, but by strict attention to said rehearsal of, every detail beforehand by every member of the personnel, both of the boats and also of the Air Force;
46. Of the latter there is this, to say, that though all their arrangements for bombing were makeshift, and their aerodrome, from which the land machines had to rise in the dark, was a month before a wilderness of trees and rocks, and in size is quite inadequate, not one of the machines (sea and land) failed to keep to its time-table, or to lend the utmost and most effective support during, and after, the attack to the Coastal Motor Boats.
47. After this nothing bigger than a Destroyer ever moved again, but a certain amount of mine-laying and sweeping was observed near the approaches to the harbour.

 The wreck of the Pamiet Azov in Kronstadt harbour

48. During (September) our ships constantly bombarded Bolshevik positions on the Southern Shore in Kaporia, Bay, in support of the Esthomian Left Flank, whilst the aircraft were employed in bombing Kronstadt and attacking their small craft whenever seen.

49. Early in October the long talked of advance against Petrograd by General Yudenifcch began - but as his left flank was not made secure by making the capture of Forts Erasnaya Gorka and Saraia Lochad his first objective - as was repeatedly urged - the attempt failed.
50. The Esthonians, so long as their advance was such that the guns of the light cruisers and destroyers of the Biorko Force could support them, went forward - but thereafter they met with strong and effective resistance and much barbed wire, and were held up within four miles of the land approaches to Fort Krasnaya Gorka and suffered very heavy losses - equal to nearly one-third of their forces, which did not at the beginning exceed two thousand men.
51. It was after this check that "Erebus" (Captain John A. Moreton, D.S.O.) arrived (24th October), which encouraged Admiral Pitka, who was in command of the Esthonian Forces, to try again; but by then the Russians had begun to fall back, thereby uncovering the Esthonian right flank and causing them further distress, and dispersion of their few remaining effectives.
The Russians and Esthonians then fell back with considerable rapidity as far west as the line Narva - Peipus Lake, and I devoted myself to endeavouring to ensure that, from the sea, no further attempt was made to further harass these very war-weary and dispirited troops.
52. Unfortunately the "Erebus" (Captain John A. Moreton, D.S.O.) arrived only after the attempt was doomed to failure, and by that time also the weather had broken, making it very unsuitable for flying in order to direct the firing of "Erebus" ; also our machines and many of the pilots were, from hard service through the summer, rather past their best. The type of machine, too (Short Seaplane), was unable to get sufficient height to avoid the very severe and accurate anti-aircraft fire from these two forts.
53. All that could be done by our ships (light cruisers and destroyers) besides "Erebus" in the way of shelling positions and covering the advance, was done, and always within the range of Fort Krasnaya's Gorka's twelve-inch guns, and under the observation of its kite balloon; although they have constantly shelled us, have never succeeded further than to land a few splinters on board.

54. On the 30th October arrived, out from England General Sir Richard Haking and a small staff of officers, who, after investigating and acquiring what appeared to ine to be a very complete grasp of the whole Baltic situation and its needs, returned to England after two weeks.

55. Towards the beginning of October and concurrently with the attempt on Petrograd by the Russian North-West Army, the German- Russian threat against Riga became acute, and a bombardment of the town commenced. "Abdiel " (Captain Berwick Curtis, C.B., D.S.O.) and " Vanoc " (Commander Edward O. Tudor, R.N.) were there at the time, also a French destroyer ("L'Aisne"), "Dragon" (Captain Francis A. Marten, C.M.G., C.V.O.) was on her way out from England and I therefore diverted her there.

Prince Avaloff Bermont

56. Owing to the situation in the Gulf of Finland and the necessity of supporting the advance of the Esthonians on the left flank of the Russian Army, I was unable to leave those waters myself, and so requested Commodore Brisson, the French Senior Naval Officer, who had by then proceeded to Riga, to take charge of the operations there, and to open fire on all positions within range on the the left bank of the Dvina River, at the expiration of the time given in my ultimatum to Prince Avaloff Bermont, who was ostensibly in command of the troops occupying those positions, and attacking Riga.
57. This Commodore Brisson most faithfully and effectively did at noon on the 15th October, apparently much to the surprise of Bermont, who had, in reply to my ultimatum, stated that he was friendly to the Allies and was only resisting Bolshevism, and disowned all connection with the Germans, and whose forces, were in position and with little shelter, in some places less than one thousand yards from ours, and the French ships, Bermont having evidently assumed that his statements and .arguments were sufficient to hoodwink me and delay our offensive action.
58. This enabled the Lettish troops to cross the river in strength and with great enthusiasm after twenty-six days fighting, to sweep away all these Russo-Germah forces from within striking distance of Riga and out of Mitau - which had been the German main base and headquarters throughout the year - Tukkum and the Windau district.
59. On about the 30th October the threat to.Libau by German troops became serious, and I sent directions to Captain Lawrence L. Dundas, C.M.G., the senior naval officer there, to, with the help of the British Military Mission, get into co-operation with the Lettish Defence Forces, establish communications and observation posts and plot targets, and sent ''Dauntless" (Captain Cecil Horace Pilcher) down from Biorko to reinforce, and shortly afterwards "Erebus" also, as by this time General Yudenitch was falling back from before Petrograd, and therefore the need for bombarding Fort Krasnaya Gorka had ceased.
60. On the 14th October a very heavy attack on Libau commenced and the Germans succeeded in occupying the outer fixed defences of the town, but after eight hours hard fighting by the Lettish troops and incessant bombardment by the British ships they were thrown, back again with very heavy losses.
61. The ammunition question at the end of this day was of some anxiety to me, two vessels having fired the whole of their outfits and other being very short. An ammunition ship was on her way down from Riga at the moment—" Galatea," homeward bound .with General Sir R. Haking. on board, and also two destroyers were in the vicinity, so all were ordered in to replenish the Libau force with their ammunition. No further attack of any weight however was made, and the crisis passed.
62. With regard to these two attacks on Riga, and Libau, it is unquestionable that the German intention was to frustrate by every means in their power any successful attack on Petrograd and Kronstadt, and to gain a footing for the winter in the Baltics Provinces with a view to overwhelming them, and then to drive on to Petrograd.

 Defemsive positions in Riga, Nov 1919

63. I had constant rumours that the Dreadnought Battleship "Sevastopol" had been prepared for, and was in every way fit for, service - also, there was ever-recurring Submarine activity - and by my reckoning there were still two large Destroyers available as well, though two had been destroyed by our mines during the operations in support of Yudenitch whilst attempting to come out and attack our patrols at night.
64. The work of the Destroyers was, as ever, tireless, dauntless, and never ending, and with never the relaxation of lying in a defended port with fires out and full rations, and all their work in cramped navigational waters (necessitating the almost constant presence on deck of the Captain, and, in the case of the Petrograd Bay '" Biorko " Patrol, always within the range, and often under the fire, of the twelve-inch guns from Fort Krasnaya Gorka.
65. This patrolling of Petrograd Bay, though generally in smooth water, was arduous and anxious always, because there was no room to manoeuvre East or West—there were mines in each direction—much foul ground, unindicated by the charts, and the charting of the Southern, Shore disagreed by a mile of longitude with that of the Northern - also for that small space, (six by twenty miles), bounded on the West by Seskar, and on the East by the minefields, three charts had to be in use.
66. In the whole of that area no shoals (and there are many), were marked by anything better than a spar buoy. When the winter came on, with incessant snow and fog throughout the long sixteen-hour nights, I scarcely hoped that the Destroyers could succeed in maintaining their stations without frequent and serious groundings or collisions, and the fact that they did is sufficient witness of the spirit that was in these two Flotillas—the First, "Captain George W. McO. Campbell, and the Second, 'Captain
Colin K.. MacLean, reinforced by some of the Third Flotilla also, under the command of Commander Aubrey T. Tillard, in "Mackay".
The energy, care and forethought which these two officers constantly displayed in order to maintain the efficiency of their Flotillas, I must always bear in most grateful admiration and remembrance.
The boats were always in "watch and watch" - i.e., as often at sea as in harbour, and very frequently under harder conditions.

67. At the beginning of the campaign the enemy's active Naval Force appeared to be -
2 Battleships (1 Dreadnought "Petfopavlovsk", 1 "Andrei Pervozvanni")
1 Cruiser ("Oleg"),
5 Destroyers ("Novik" class),
2 to 4 Submarines, and perhaps 4 smaller coal-burning Torpedo Boats, besides Minesweepers.
68. Of these -
2 Battleships ("Petropavloysk" and "Andrei Pervozvanni") were torpedoed and disabled in Kronstadt Harbour, and have not moved since - except "Andrei Pervozvanni" into dock.
1 Cruiser ("Oleg") was torpedoed and sunk at her moorings off Kronstadt.
3 Destroyers ("Novik" class), "Azard", "Gavril" and "Constantin" were sunk, two of them by our mines, the other either by mine or torpedo.
1 Patrol Vessel (armed), " Kitoboi", which surrendered on the night of 14th-15th June,
and, I think,
2 Submarines, one by depth charge and the other by mine.
Besides this -
1 Oiler was bombed and badly damaged.
A number of Motor Launches were set on fire and destroyed,
and .
1 Submarine Depot Ship ("Pamiet Azov") was torpedoed and sunk, all in Kronstadt Harbour.
An Oil Fuel Store and a very large quantity of wood and coal fuel was also burnt.
69. Against this our losses have been :
1 Submarine ("L.55") mined and sunk.
1 Destroyer ("Verulam") mined and sunk.
1 Destroyer ("Vittoria") torpedoed and sunk by enemy submarine.
2. Mine-sweeping Sloops ("Gentian" and "Myrtle") mined and sunk.
3 Coastal Motor Boats sunk during the attack 'on Kronstadt.
2 Coastal Motor Boats blown up; unserviceable.
2 Coastal Motor Boats and 2 Motor Launches sunk through stress of weather whilst in tow.
1 Store Carrier ("Volturnous") mined and sunk.
1 Light' Cruiser' ("Curacoa") mined and salved.
1 Paddle Mine-sweeper ("Banbury" mined and salved.
1 Motor Launch (M.L.156) mined and salved.
1 Admiralty Oiler ("War Expert") mined and salved.
1 Mine-layer ("Princess Margaret") damaged 'by mine.
70.—The losses of.personnel have been:
Killed.
Royal Navy .. ... 16 Officers. 97 Men...
Royal Air Force ... 4 Officers. 1 Man.
Total 20 Officers. 98 Men..

71. My aim was throughout the year to prevent any Bolshevik warships breaking out into.the Gulf of Finland - and the ice has now relieved me of this responsibility - and also to frustrate by every means the most evident design of the Germans to overrun and. dominate the Baltic Provinces and then to advance Petrograd, and their repulse from both Riga and Libau in October and November by the Lettish troops under cover of the bombardment of our ships has, I think, put an end to this also, and all German troops were back into Prussia by 15th December.
I have the honour to be,
Sir,
Your obedient servant,
WALTER COWAN,
Rear-Admiral Commanding First Light
Cruiser Squadron.

The British view of the Baltic, 1919. Part 1

The British intervention in the Russian Civil War was not a great success - after all, the Reds won. However, one place where they did some good was in the Baltic. The Royal Naval commander there during 1919 was Rear Admiral Walter Cowan. This is his official report.

 London Gazette
6th April 1920

"Delhi" at Devonport,
SIR,
1. I have the honour to forward herewith this my report on my year's Service in Command of His Majesty's Naval Forces in the Baltic, where I relieved Rear-Admiral Sir Edwyn S. Alexander-Sinclair, K.C.B., M.V.O., on .the 6th January, 1919.

2. When I arrived the German situation was as.follows: German troops were nominally in occupation of Latvia, with Headquarters at Libau.
The Bolsheviks were in Riga, and gradually advancing South and West
The German Troops were of low morale, and in a poor state of discipline - and wherever the Bolsheviks advanced the Germans fell back, in many cases handing over arms and munitions to the Bolsheviks on their retirement.
3. The Bolsheviks had by the middle of February advanced so far as Windau, and were also within forty miles from Libau from the Westward.
4. I therefore in "Caledon " (Commander Henry S. M. Harrison-Wallace, R.N.) shelled them out of Windau; and made what preparations I could to evacuate the refugees from Libau, as I did not consider an indiscriminate shelling of the town in the event of its occupation by the Bolsheviks would be advisable if no troops were available to land for its reoccupation.

5. Shortly after this (at the end of February), large German reinforcements began to arrive by sea, and General-Major Graf Von. der Goltz assumed command. at Libau, and very soon afterwards stabilised the situation, and drove the Bolsheviks well East again - and this, so far, was satisfactory.
6. In the meantime the Letts - under the direction of M^. Ulmanis, the Acting President. - were making every endeavour to raise and equip a sufficient military force - aided by a. limited quantity of small arms and machine guns - to enable them to undertake the defence of their own country against the Bolsheviks when the time should come for the Germans to withdraw. It soon became evident, however, that it was not the Germans' intention to permit any Lettish Force being raised, and constant cases of friction, oppression and disarmament of Lettish Troops began to occur
7. The climax was reached on the 16th April, when at the Naval Harbour - where the Headquarters of the Lettish Troops were - German troops raided these Headquarters, arrested and disarmed all the Officers, and looted money and documents, killing and wounding several Lettish soldiers. Simultaneously with this, in the town of Libau itself, Baltic-German troops arrested those members of the Lettish Government who were unable to escape them, whilst the rest took refuge on board His Majesty's ships, and
M. Ulmanis, the Acting President, with the British Mission, which consequently was surrounded by Baltic-German sentries.
8. That night two young Baltic-German Officers came off to my ship and announced that they were the Heads of the Committee of Safety until the formation of a new Government, and asked me if I could guarantee them the support of His Majesty's Government in this movement.
I pointed out to them that until I had some satisfactory explanation for the events of the day I could listen to and recognise no such proposals.
I then sent them on shore again and heard nothing more of them.

Libau 1919

9. On my requiring an explanation from Von der Goltz for these happenings, he denied all responsibility or knowledge for them, saying that his troops were out of hand, and that the Baltic-Germans were not under his orders.
10. In consequence of this I called a meeting of the Allied representatives, and with them demanded the following from Von der Gdltz;
First. - That the unit which raided the Lettish Headquarters should be at once removed from the Libau district.
Second. - That the Commanding Officer of the offending Baltic-German Unit be relieved of his command.
We also gave him the time and date by which we required the fulfilment of these demands.
11. Both were complied with within the time, but Von der Goltz stated that as he considered the Lettish Government to be Bolshevik and a danger to the district he was administering by order of the Allies, he could not agree to their release from arrest, or the continuance of their functions.
12. This state of affairs was reported to Paris accordingly, and a very few days afterwards, owing to the melting of the ice, and signs of activity by the Bolshevik Fleet, I had myself to proceed, to the Gulf of Finland, and Commodore Arthur A. M. Duff, C.B., arrived on the 29th May and took charge of affairs in the Western Baltic; and thereafter, by his quick and accurate grasp of the whole German situation there, freed me from a very considerable portion of my preoccupations.
It is hard for me to do justice on paper to the adequacy and effectiveness of his administration until he left for England again on the 28th September. I have now transferred to him the duties of Senior Naval Officer in the Baltic.

13.. On arrival in the Gulf of Finland and reviewing the situation, my hope and intention was - as soon as ice conditions allowed it - to move as far East as possible in order to support the left flank of the Esthonian Front, and to protect it from any attempt at being turned from the sea.
14. After getting into touch with the Esthonian Naval and Military Authorities, I went over to Helsingfors to call on the Regent (General G. Mannerheim), and also to congratulate the Finns on the recognition of the independence, which had been announced the previous day. Circumstances then obliged me to return to Libau for a day on the 12th May.
15. I had previously - on the 7th May - shifted my flag from " Caledon" to "Curacoa," On returning from Libau to Reval on the 13th May " Curacoa " struck a mine, which disabled her from further service and occasioned eleven casualties amongst her personnel.

 HMS Caledon

16. I therefore shifted to " Cleopatra," and left Reval the next morning for the Eastward, and, from the 14th May onwards I lay - first in Narva Bay for a few days reconnoitring as far as Kaporia whilst the Esthonians were landing and operating between there and Louga - and then, as they established themselves further East, I moved forward to Seskar.
from which place, with the very good visibility prevailing day after day, I was able from the mast head to keep an effective watch on Petrograd Bay.

17. The situation then was somewhat of an anxiety to me, as the strength of the Bolshevik. Naval Forces was known to include Armoured Ships - the Esthonians were lying in Kaporia with 1 unarmed Transport (including the Nekmangrund Light Vessel, so hard up were they for ships), an old,  slow ex-Russian Gunboat " Bobr," and one ex-Russian Destroyer, dependent on me for fuel, of which I had then, only a limited supply - and my own Force consisted only of "Cleopatra " and four Destroyers, the Seventh Submarine Flotilla arriving shortly afterwards at Reval.
18. From then onwards I maintained a watch on the Bay, whilst the Esthonians were constantly in contact with the Bolshevik Troops, bombarding and pushing forward here and there, and landing more men, whilst relieving those who needed refit, always under the direction of Admiral John Pitka, who, before the War, was a Shipowner of Reval and Director of a Salvage Company, but who assumed command of the Esthonian Naval Forces last winter, and has always shown a most correct instinct for war, both on land and sea. He has since been decorated by His Majesty.

19. On the 17th May a great deal of smoke was observed over Kromstadt; and on the 18th five Bolshevik craft, led by a large Destroyer of the "Avtroil" type came as far West as Dolgoi Nos, five miles clear of the Petrogriad Minefields, and then while still close under the land turned back. So in "Cleopatra" (Captain Charles James Colebrooke Little, C.B) with " Shakespeare " (Commander, now Captain, Frederick Edward Ketelbey Strong, D.S.O.), " Scout " (Lieutenant-Commander Edmund F. Fitzgerald), and " Walker " (Lieutenant-Commander Ambrose T. N.), I went ahead full speed from Seskar on an Easterly course, closing the range rapidly from 20,000 to 16,000 yards when fire was opened, the Bolshevik Destroyer, flying a very large red flag, firing the first shot. I stood on until within half a mile of the mined area, and came under the fire of the Grey Horse Battery, but by this time the range was opening and spotting very difficult, owing to the vessels being close under the land all the time.
20. The speed of the enemy appeared to be reduced to about ten knots, one good hit on the Destroyer at any rate was observed, but under the circumstances I did not consider it advisable to run in over the minefields and under the guns of the shore batteries in order to obtain a decision, and so these craft made good their escape.
21. To the Eastward, but not taking part in the action, was a three-funnelled Cruiser, the "Oleg," and to the Eastward of her again was smoke - and it was reported that the Bolshevik Dreadnought Battleship "Petropavlovsk" was also out.

22. On the 24th May General Sir Hubert Gough arrived in "Galatea" on a special Mission to Finland and the Baltic States, and I accompanied him over to Helsingfors to assist at his ceremonial landing, and to salute him there, and went with him to interview the Finnish authorities, thereafter leaving again for the Eastward, leaving " Galatea" at Helsingfors.

 HMS Walker

23. On the 31st May, whilst still lying off Seskar in "Cleopatra" with "Dragon" (Captain Francis Arthur Marten, C.M.G., C.V.O.), "Galatea" (Captain Charles Morton Forbes, D.S.O.), " Wallace" (Captain George William McOran Campbell), "Voyager" (Lieutenant-Commander Charles Gage Stuart, D'.S.C.), "Vanessa" (Lieutenant- Commander Edward Osborne Broadley, D.S.O.), "Wryneck" (Commander Ralph Vincent Eyre, E..N.), "Versatile" (Commander Gerald Wynter, O.B.E.), "Vivacious" (Commander Claude L. Bate, R.N.), and with "Walker" and two Submarines on patrol, a Bolshevik Destroyer was sighted coming West with a Dreadnought Battleship, and two other small craft behind the minefields. The Destroyer was engaged by "Walker" and chased Eastwards, the Battleship opening a heavy and well-controlled fire at the same time.
24. On the first report I weighed and steamed East, a Bolshevik aeroplane appearing overhead and dropping bombs among my force as it advanced, but it flew off Eastwards on being fired at.
25. The Destroyer fell back on the battleship, which manoeuvred behind the minefields and kept up a heavy and well-disciplined fire on "Walker" as she fell back to meet me;
Fort Krasnaya Gorka having a kite balloon up and firing also.
26. I stood up and down the edge of the minefield, but the Bolshevik Force showed no intention of coming on, and retired Eastwards after a few salvoes had been fired.
27. "Walker " was hit twice, but no appreciable damage was done, and there was one slight casualty only.
28. It now became apparent to me that with the small forces at my disposal it would be necessary, in order to keep an effective watch on Bolshevik Naval movements, and in particular to, if possible, ensure that no mines were laid to the Westward of the existing fields across the entrance to Petrograd Bay, that I should.have a Base nearer to Kronstadt than Reyal.
29. I therefore moved to Biorko, and required certain assistance from the Finns in the way of patrols and accommodation on shore agreed to by them.